History of England

The History of Britain covers British history from the Prehistoric era to the modern age.

Prehistory

• Ice ages
• Paleolithic
• Mesolithic
• Neolithic
• Bronze Age
• Iron Age
• Religion
• Celts?

The late pre-Roman Iron Age

Britain emerged into recorded history in the Classical period. It is likely that the name Cassiterides or "tin islands", mentioned in the 5th century BC by Herodotus, refers to the British Isles. The Greek explorer Pytheas of Massalia claimed to have visited the island in the 4th century, and although his own writings are lost, and later classical writers are sceptical, it seems likely that he did so. However, little else is recorded about the island until the 1st century BC.

The Belgae of north-eastern Gaul began to settle on the coasts of south-eastern Britain in the 2nd or early 1st century BC, after a period of raiding, and a Gaulish Belgic king called Diviciacus is known to have held power there. Then, in the mid-1st century BC, Britain became part of Rome's sphere of political influence. Julius Caesar, in the course of his conquest of Gaul, made two armed expeditions there in 55 and 54 BC. The first barely gained a foothold on the south-east coast before being forced to return to the continent for winter. The second was more successful, installing a friendly king, Mandubracius of the Trinovantes, and forcing the submission of his rival Cassivellaunus, but conquered no territory and did not extend beyond the Thames Valley.

Coins had arrived in Britain before Caesar, perhaps as early as the late 3rd century BC. The earliest were imported from Belgic Gaul, and were uninscribed. By the early 1st century BC the Britons of the south-east were striking their own coins. The first inscribed coins were those of Caesar's former ally Commius, who fled to Britain after falling out with Caesar and established a dynasty there. The practice spread, allowing the archaeologist some insight into British politics in this period. Beginning with Commius' son Tincomarus, the traditional Gallo-Belgic design, ulimately derived from the 4th century BC gold staters of Philip II of Macedon, was replaced by Roman-derived designs.

Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus' reign, claims that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could, and mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus. Based mainly on coin evidence, Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms, the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius, and archaeology shows an increase in imported luxury goods in the south-east. These peaceful relations broke down in AD AD 39 or 40, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and staged an invasion that collapsed in farcical circumstances.

Roman Empire

When Claudius successfully invaded in 43, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, this time Verica of the Atrebates. The Catuvellaunian territory became the nucleus of a new Roman province, while Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus was sent up as the client ruler of Atrebatian and other lands. Over the course of the 1st century Roman control expended west into Wales, then north into Scotland. However, the Roman presence in the north proved untenable, and was withdrawn to the line of Hadrian's Wall in the 2nd century.

• Names
• Language
• Urbanisation & road-building
• Arrival of Christianity
• Roman civil wars

Post Rome

• Roman withdrawal
• Migration period
• Anglo-Saxons, Picts, Scots
• Arthur legend
• Emergence of England, Scotland and Wales

The Middle Ages

• Early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England, Gaelic kingdoms in Scotland, Welsh kingdoms
• Norman conquests of England and Wales
• Wars of Scottish independence
• Owain Glyndwr's rebellion in Wales
• Wars of the Roses
• Stuart Scotland

Between wars; 1918-1939

The Lloyd George years

Lloyd George led a coalition of Liberals and conservatives into the 1918 election. His letter endorsing coalition candidates was referred to as a coupon by Herbert Asquith, hence the term coupon election. This was the first election since 1910 and the first in which women had the vote. The major issues of the coalition programme where; a) to try the German Kaiser. b) To make Germany pay a large war indemnity. c) To create a country 'fit for heroes' who had returned from the war.

These policies were popular and Georges's reputation as 'the man who won the war' ensured that the coalition won by a wide margin. The election results were notable for the Sinn Féin success in Ireland, the rise of Labour with 59 seats as the main opposition and the beginning of the disintegration of the once mighty Liberal Party, whose supporters flocked to both the Conservatives and Labour in years to come.

In the early years of the new government a number of measures were passed which added to George's reputation as a social reformer. The Fisher Education Act (1918) abolished child labour. The Housing Act (1919) led to over 200,000 houses being built and the Insurance Act (1921) extended insurance to all workers suffering from illness or those unemployed. However the government was beset by a number of problems which led to George's resignation.

Four million men demobilised by the end of 1921. As women were not allowed to retain the jobs they had worked in during the war and because of the subsequent economic boom, most men were absorbed into industry. Yet many of these veterans were restless and yearned for a better life. This 'class conscioussness' led directly to the General Strikes of 1925 and the struggle for social reform within the nation.

In the summer of 1920 the boom turned to a slump. Unemployment was becoming a problem and by 1921 reached two million. Cutbacks in the budget ensured around £100 million was taken from housing, education and social services. The slump in turn led to industrial unrest, especially in the coalfields. The Miner's federation voted to strike in support of its demands of Nationalisation of the mines. Eventually they went on strike after a wage cut and called for sympathy from railwaymen and transport workers. When this support was later withdrawn the Unions were defeated.

These problems were gradually making George less popular. The existence of the Lloyd George Fund added a taint of corruption to the mix. Without a political party or funds he sought to amass by private means funds to ensure his political future. This in turn led to the trading of honours for donations. Something similar would happen in the 'cash for peerages' scandal under Tony Blairs government early in the 21st century.

Conservative bankbenchers were angry over the Anglo-Irish Treaty and awaited the opportunity to oust George. This came with the Chanak Crisis of 1922. A refusal by the Turks to accept the terms of the Treaty of Sévres led to George issuing an ultimatum before negotiations could begin. Angered by his responsibility on bringing the country to the brink of war, the Conservatives demanded an end to the postwar coalition. When they withdrew their support George resigned. Although he would be leader of the Liberals from 1926 to 1931, he would never again hold political office.

World War II

• World War II
• World War II, homefront

Postwar (1945-)

British casualties from World War II numbered 393,000. Britain's economy suffered dreadfully, One quarter of her national wealth was sacrificed for the war effort. The national debt tripled and two thirds of her export trade had been lost. Inflation had risen and the standard of living fallen. The Economist wrote, Our present needs are the direct consequence of the fact that we fought earliest, that we fought longest and that we fought hardest.

The powers of the central government increased dramatically. New departments were set up for a wide range of areas such as food, shipping and information. The Emergency Powers Acts of 1939 and 1940 gave the government wide powers of arrest. These were rarely used, and even Sir Oswald Mosley, Britain's leading fascist, was released from jail in 1943.

Egalitarianism after the war was a result of inter-class co-operation throughout the war. The victory of Clement Atlee's Labour Party and the radical social changes he promised were a testament to this. Sir William Beveridge wrote a report on Social Insurance in November, 1942. Generally recalled as the 'Beveridge report', it promised a comprehensive scheme of social insurance from 'the cradle to the grave' against illness, unemployment and poverty. These adversities were to be overcome by the provision of social insurance for public health, free medical aid, unemployment insurance, improved housing and other reforming measures. There were to form the basis of the Welfare State. When the report was not given sufficient support by the wartime coalition, the greatest advocates of it - The Labour Party - staged the biggest parliamentary revolt of the 1940-1945 period. The Butler education Act of 1944 was of the same reforming nature as the Beveridge report. It raised the school leaving age to 15 and set up three types of free secondary education; grammar, technical and modern. All children sat the '11 plus' examination in order that the authorities could best decide what type of school best suited their abilities. In addition, nursery schools and schools for the handicapped were also established. Local authorities were to build schools and grant scholarships to provide greater access to higher education. There was also provision for school meals and improved medical services for children.