United Kingdom: Difference between revisions

From Citizendium
Jump to navigation Jump to search
imported>Martin Baldwin-Edwards
mNo edit summary
 
(222 intermediate revisions by 17 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{subpages}}
{{subpages}}
{{Infobox Country
{{Image|Location map of the United Kingdom and the European Union.svg|right|400px|The United Kingdom is shown in orange, and for context, the official countries of the European Union are shown in dark blue. Some overseas territories that are included in the European Union are outside the boundaries of the map.}}
|conventional_long_name      = The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
The '''United Kingdom''' is a political union of the countries of [[England]], [[Wales]], [[Scotland]] and [[Northern Ireland]].  Its formal title is "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". It is often referred to as "Britain", including by the government. Its principal language is [[English language|English]],  but the  [[Welsh language]] is also officially recognised. Other indigenous languages include [[Scots language|Scots]], [[Scottish Gaelic]] and [[British Sign Language]]. Its citizens are called Britons (or, informally, "Brits"), and their nationality is referred to as "British". It is located off the north-western coast of [[Europe]], and it is geographically and politically a part of the continent. It is a member of the [[British Commonwealth]] and the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] and is a founder member of the [[United Nations]] with a permanent seat on the [[United Nations Security Council]]. In 2016, a majority of British voters opted to [[United Kingdom exit from the European Union|leave the European Union]], and this was implemented in 2020.
|image_flag                  = Flag of the United Kingdom.gif
|national_motto              = {{lang|fr|''Dieu et mon droit''}} <small>([[French language|French]])</small><br />God and my right
|national_anthem            = [[God Save the Queen]]
|official_languages          = [[English]]
|capital                    = [[London]]
|government_type            = [[Parliamentary democracy]] and [[Constitutional monarchy]]
|leader_title1              = Monarch
|leader_name1                = [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]
|leader_title2              = Prime Minister
|leader_name2                = [[Gordon Brown]]
|accessionEUdate            = 1st January 1973
|area                        = 244820
|area_rank                  = 79th
|percent_water              = 1.34
|population_estimate        = 61,612,300
|population_estimate_rank    = 22nd
|population_estimate_year    = 2009
|population_census          = 58,789,194
|population_census_year      = 2001
|population_density          = 246
|population_density_rank    = 48th
|GDP_PPP_year                = 2008
|GDP_PPP                    = $2,230 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank                = 7th
|GDP_PPP_per_capita          = $36,523
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank    = 18th
|GDP_nominal                = $2,674 billion
|GDP_nominal_rank            = 6th
|GDP_nominal_year            = 2008
|GDP_nominal_per_capita      = $43,785
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 20th
|HDI_year                    = 2008
|HDI                        = 0.947
|HDI_rank                    = 21st
|HDI_category                = high
|currency                    = [[Pound sterling]]<ref>The [[Euro]] is accepted in many payphones and some larger shops.</ref>
|currency_code              = GBP
|time_zone                  = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]]
|utc_offset                  = +0
|time_zone_DST              = [[British Summer Time|BST]]
|utc_offset_DST              = +1
|country_code                = GBR
|cctld                      = [[.uk]]
|calling_code                = 44
}}
The '''United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''' is a [[country]] located off the northwestern coast of [[Europe]], and is part of the [[European Union]]. The official name is normally shortened to '''United Kingdom''' ('''UK''').<ref>In articles on [[geography]] and 21st century characteristics, the preferred noun is '''United Kingdom''' or '''UK'''. In historical work the preferred noun is '''Great Britain''' or '''Britain.''' The preferred adjective is always '''British.'''</ref> The main language is '''English''' (along with Welsh, in Wales) and there is official recognition of other languages in dealing with the state. Citizens are called '''Britons''' or (informally) '''Brits''' and the nationality is '''British'''. Britain created the [[British Empire]] in the 16th to 19th centuries, making [[London]] a major world capital.<ref>Nowadays the UK is the most prominent member of the [[British Commonwealth]], along with most former colonies.</ref>


{{TOC|left}}
{{TOC|left}}
The UK is a political union of four countries<ref> [http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page823.asp Prime Minister's Website] Accessed 24 April 2007</ref>: [[England]], [[Northern Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]]. It possesses two [[British Crown Dependencies]], the [[Isle of Man]] and the [[Channel Islands]], which are not part of the UK or members of the European Union and fourteen overseas territories, of which the most well-known are [[Gibraltar]], [[Saint Helena]] and the [[Falkland Islands]].<ref> [http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1044360168291 Foreign & Commonwealth Office: Official Documents] Accessed 7 Oct 2007</ref>
The UK is a member of the [[G8]] as a highly developed country with the fifth largest gross domestic product in the world and a $1.833 trillion economy. It is the third most populous state in the [[European Union]] with a population of c60 million<ref> [http://epp.eurostat.cec.eu.int/portal/page?_pageid=1996,39140985&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL&screen=detailref&language=en&product=Yearlies_new_population&root=Yearlies_new_population/C/C1/C11/caa10000 European Union population figures], Eurostat/US Bureau of the Census. Retrieved 15 May 2006.</ref> and is a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ([[NATO]]) military alliance and the [[United Nations]] (UN), where it has a permanent seat on the UN Security Council. The UK is also one of the world's major nuclear powers.


==History==
==History==
The "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" is the latest of several unions formed over the last 840 years. The [[Kingdom of England]] and the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] existed as separate states since the 9th century. The once independent Principality of Wales fell under the control of English monarchs in 1284, and was merged into the Kingdom of England in 1535.<ref> "[http://www.schoolshistory.org.uk/walesunion.htm The Act of Union with Wales]", SchoolsHistory.org.uk, 7 November 2004. Retrieved 15 May 2006.</ref> With the [[Acts of Union 1707]], England and Scotland, having been in a union of crowns under the same reigning monarch since 1603, agreed to a political union as the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]].<ref> "[http://personal.pitnet.net/primarysources/act.html The Treaty (or Act) of Union, 1707]". Retrieved 15 May 2006.</ref>
The British people have acquired a genetic inheritance from immigrants including Celts, Romans, Saxons, Danes, Normans, and many others.
 
An early cultural inheritance  came from the [[Celts]] of central [[Europe]] and a further contribution came when missionaries established monasteries in the [[British Isles]]. Little cultural progress was made during the five centuries of [[Anglo-Saxon]] rule in England, however, and the technological knowledge that was lost when the Romans left was only slowly regained. Intellectual thought was dominated for several centuries by a religious establishment concerned mainly with the preservation of orthodoxy, and it was not until the [[Renaissance]] that inductive modes of reasoning became acceptable. The British constitutional inheritance has been the outcome of an  intermittent progression from an unruly conglomeration of uncoordinated kingships into an orderly  democratic  nation. A transition from autocracy to constitutional monarchy happened  by the transfer of power to deliberative assemblies in a succession of discrete steps  that  included  the [[Magna Carta]] of 1215, the Bill of Rights of 1688, the Reform Act of 1867, and the Representation of the People Act of 1928. The dissolution of the rigid hierarchical structure of rights and obligations of the feudal system happened at an earlier stage in Britain than in other European countries and the resulting increase in labour mobility made possible the earlier development of the [[Industrial Revolution]] -and gave it a decisive, although temporary, economic advantage. As a result it was for a time, the world's richest and most powerful country. It acquired - and then lost - responsibility for managing the world's financial system, and for ruling an [[British Empire|Empire]] of almost a quarter of the world's population, covering a larger area than any other empire in history. In the course of the 20th century, it suffered major losses of its economic resources in two world wars and it gave independence to nearly all the former members its empire, and devolved a degree of legislative independence to [[Northern Ireland]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]]. It joined the [[European Union]] but did not adopt its common currency. It joined with the [[United States of America]] in the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]], and supported it in wars in [[Korea]], Afghanistan and Iraq, but not [[Vietnam]].
The [[Acts of Union 1800]] united the Kingdom of Great Britain with the [[Kingdom of Ireland]], which had been gradually brought under English control between 1541 and [[Treaty of Limerick|1691]], to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.<ref>"[http://www.actofunion.ac.uk/actofunion.htm#act The Act of Union]", Act of Union Virtual Library. Retrieved 15 May 2006.</ref> Independence for [[Ireland (state)|the Irish Free State]] in 1922 followed the [[Government of Ireland Act 1920|creation of two parliaments]] in the island of Ireland two years previously. While Southern Ireland chose to become an independent state with dominion status known as the Irish Free State, Northern Ireland which includes six of the nine counties of the province of [[Ulster]], remained a part of the UK,<ref> "[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/politics/docs/ait1921.htm The Anglo-Irish Treaty, 6 December 1921]", CAIN. Retrieved 15 May 2006.</ref> The United Kingdom officially changed its name five years after the secession of the Irish Free State.<ref>The change of name was achieved by legislation, the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927. Available: [http://www.heraldica.org/topics/britain/britstyles.htm#1927] Accessed: 16 November 2007.</ref>
 
The dominant industrial and maritime power of the 19th century, the UK is sometimes credited with being the nation that "created the modern world",<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Ferguson
| first = Niall
| authorlink = Niall Ferguson
| year = 2003
| title = Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order
| publisher = Basic Books
| id = ISBN 0-465-02328-2
}}</ref> by playing a leading role in developing Western ideas of property, capitalism, and parliamentary democracy as well as making significant contributions to literature, the arts, and science and technology. At its zenith, the [[British Empire]] covered one-quarter of the Earth's surface and a third of its population, making it the largest empire in history. The first half of the 20th century saw the Empire's strength depleted from the effects of World War I and World War II. The second half witnessed the dismantling of the Empire and the UK rebuilding itself into a modern trading nation.
 
The UK has been a member of the European Union since 1973. The government has yet to choose whether to support the [[euro]] currency, which could be adopted following a positive economic assessment and a future referendum.<ref name="fivetests"> "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/2423783.stm The UK's five tests]", BBC News, 21 November 2002. Retrieved 16 May 2006.</ref> At present, however, the euro is off the agenda.


==Government and politics==
==Government and politics==
===Organisation===
===The Constitution===
The UK is a [[constitutional monarchy]], with executive power exercised on behalf of the monarch by the Prime Minister and other cabinet ministers. The cabinet, including the Prime Minister, and other ministers collectively make up Her Majesty's Government. These ministers are (usually) drawn from and are responsible to [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]], the legislative body, which is traditionally considered in English law (the position in Scottish law has never been settled) to be 'supreme' (that is, able to legislate on any matter and is not bound by decisions of its predecessors). The UK does not have a single codified ('written') constitution, relying instead on custom and separate pieces of [[constitutional law]].<ref> "[http://www.llrx.com/features/uk2.htm#UK%20Legal%20System A Guide To the UK Legal System]" Carter, Sarah ([[University of Kent|University of Kent at Canterbury]]), retrieved May 16 2006</ref>
Parliamentary sovereignty is the ruling principle of the constitution<ref>The British constitution is not codified into a single document but is recorded in the form of an extensive  a body of common-and state law.</ref>  of the United Kingdom. Parliament is the country's supreme legal authority, and it can create or end any law. It has from time to time passed laws that limit the application of its sovereignty, but it is not bound by those laws. nor by any other of its past decisions
<ref>[http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/sovereignty/ ''Parliamentary sovereignty'', www.parliament.uk]</ref>.


The monarch is head of state but has virtually no power other than choosing the political leader invited to form a government and agreeing to or declining a Prime Minister's request for a General Election. The Prime Minister is the head of government. The government is answerable chiefly to the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]], from which constitutional convention requires that the Prime Minister be chosen. Cabinet members are drawn from the House of Commons and the [[House of Lords]], although the Prime Minister is legally free to appoint anybody as a minister.
The [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|UK parliament]] is bicameral, consisting of a wholly-elected [[House of Commons (United Kingdom)|House of Commons]] and a mainly-appointed [[House of Lords]], of which the House of Commons is its primary legislative assembly, and the functions of the House of Lords are mainly deliberative. Once elected, the House of Commons serves for a fixed term of five years unless the government loses a [[House of Commons (United Kingdom)/Addendum#Votes of confidence|vote of no confidence]], and  unless a new government does not receive a vote of confidence within a fortnight, or two thirds of its members vote for its dissolution<ref>[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2011/14/contents/enacted ''Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011'']</ref>.


The British system of government has been emulated around the world — a legacy of the British Empire — most notably in other former and current Commonwealth countries. The leader of the political party which commands a majority of seats in the House of Commons is normally invited by the monarch to form a government and act as prime minister. The monarch does, however, have the freedom to choose any political leader who, in the opinion of Buckingham Palace, has the greatest chance to form a workable government. Since June 2007, the Prime Minister has been [[Gordon Brown]] of the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] replacing [[Tony Blair]] as party leader and prime minister. As usual in the UK, this transfer of power was effected without popular mandate (i.e. a general election), as would be required in many other advanced democracies.
The political head of the [[Government of the United Kingdom|UK government]] is its [[Prime Minister  of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] who is a member of one of the Houses of Parliament,  appointed by the [[Monarchy|Monarch]] on the presumption  that he or she would able to command the support of a majority of the members of the House of Commons. (The appointee is expected to submit his or her resignation if he or she is unable to win  the of confidence of the House of Commons). It is nowadays understood that the Prime Minister must be in the House of Commons. (Apart from a very short period in 1963,<ref>The  Earl of Home completed the legal formalities of disclaiming his peerage four days after being appointed Prime Minister, and was elected to the Commons in a by-election shortly after.</ref> this has always been the case since 1902.) The person chosen to be Prime Minister is normally the elected leader of one of the country's [[political party|political parties]].  


The monarch is the fount of honour and all judges, military and police officers swear allegiance to her/him personally. The exercise of the Royal Prerogative by the Prime Minister gives him/her the power to wage wars without formal reference to Parliament. The monarch is formally an integral part of Parliament (as the "[[Crown-in-Parliament]]") and gives Parliament the power to meet and create legislation. An [[Act of Parliament]] becomes law when it has been approved by the monarch (known as [[Royal Assent]]); the last refusal of assent was by Queen Anne in 1706.<ref>See [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld/ldcomp/hlctso29.htm Royal Assent] </ref>
The [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarch]] is the country's [[Head of State]]. The functions of the monarchy are mainly ceremonial, but the Sovereign, as its embodiment, has the
right to advise the Prime Minister in private. The Sovereign  has the personal power to resolve an otherwise intractable constitutional crisis but is bound, in all other circumstances, to give way to ministerial advice. In other respects, the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom/Addendum#The Royal Prerogatives| royal prerogative]], which includes the power to declare war, is effectively exercised by ministers.  The ancient feudal functions of the monarchy continue to be reflected in  constitutional and legal terminology and usage. For those purposes, the term "The Crown", refers to a legal fiction that makes the [[state]] a legal entity  that can be a party to a legal transaction or a legal action<ref>[http://www.duhaime.org/LegalDictionary/C/Crown.aspx ''Crown Definition'', Duhaime's Legal Dictionary]</ref>.


The monarchy remains popular in the UK. Support for a British republic usually fluctuates between 15% and 25% of the population, with roughly 10% undecided or indifferent.<ref>"[http://www.mori.com/mrr/2000/c000616.shtml Polls Apart? The Public and the Monarchy]", Market & Opinion Research International, 16 June 2000, Retrieved 14 May 2006.</ref> The current monarch is [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|HM Queen Elizabeth II]] who acceded to the throne in 1952 and was crowned in 1953.
===The conduct of government===
It is the Prime Minister's responsibility to select those members of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Houses of Parliament]] who are to  become [[Minister (government)|Ministers]] and serve as political managers of  government departments, and to decide who among them are to serve in the top decision-making body known as "the Cabinet".   With rare exceptions, a government's  business is conducted in accordance with the "doctrine of collective responsibility"<ref>[http://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons/lib/research/rp2004/rp04-082.pdf Oonagh Gay and Thomas Powell: ''The collective responsibility of Ministers - an outline of the issues'', House of Commons Research Paper, 15 November 2004]</ref>, under which ministers are bound to  defend Cabinet decisions, whether or not they agree with them. The conduct of ministers is governed by a ministerial code<ref>[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/media/409215/ministerialcodemay2010.pdf ''Ministerial Code'', Cabinet Office, May 2010]</ref> covering their personal conduct, the presentation of policy, and their relations with Parliament and the civil service. Ministers receive political advice from "special advisers", and impartial advice from  permanent civil servants. Permanent civil servants are recruited by open competition under the supervision of an independent Commission<ref>[http://civilservicecommission.independent.gov.uk/About_us/index.html The Civil Service Commission]</ref>, and their appointment does not change with changes of government; whereas special advisers are temporary civil servants who are appointed by ministers, and whose tenure ends when there is a change of government<ref>[http://civilservicecommission.independent.gov.uk/admin/assets/spaw2/uploads/files/Constitutional-Reform-Governance-Act.pdf ''Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010'']</ref>.
In 2010/11 there were 68 special advisors<ref>[http://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons/lib/research/briefings/snpc-03813.pdf Oonagh Gay ''Special Advisers'', House of Commons Library, November 2010]</ref> within a total of about 440,000 civil servants. Legislation is normally initiated by government departments and piloted through the legislative process by the party [[Whip (political)|Whips]]. Legislative proposals by a Government with a substantial majority in the House of Commons are usually enacted. Government Whips warn members who rebel against its motions that they are damaging  their prospects of promotion.


Parliament is the national legislature of the UK. It is the ultimate legislative authority in the UK, according to the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty. Disregarding the monarch, whose role in parliament is nowadays largely symbolic, it is bicameral, composed of the elected House of Commons and the House of Lords, whose members are now mostly appointed, but historically comprised mostly hereditary lords, or before the dissolution of the monasteries, clergy. The powers of the House of Lords are limited, with the Commons being the primary legislating body. The Commons houses 646 members, directly elected from single-member constituencies based on population. The House of Lords has 724 members (though this number is not fixed), constituted of [[hereditary peers]] (Note: The [[House of Lords Act 1999]] removed the right of all but two hereditary peers to be members of the House of Lords but permitted 90 hereditary peers to be elected by their peers as members), life peers, and bishops of the [[Church of England]]. The Church of England is the [[established church]] of the state in England, with the monarch and the Archbishop of Canterbury as its head.
===Political parties===


===Party politics===
Nearly all MPs belong to political parties; often all do. Currently, 10 parties are represented in the Commons, of which  the only two that have been in power alone recently are the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] and the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]. The Liberal Democrats were in a coalition government from 2010 to 2015. Among the others, the [[Scottish National Party]] and [[Plaid Cymru]] campaign for the independence of Scotland and Wales respectively; the [[Democratic Unionist Party]](DUP) represent unionist, and Sinn Féin and the Social Democratic an Labour Party represent nationalist interests in Northern Ireland, while the Alliance Party tries to bridge the divide. The Green Party is also represented in the Commons. Many other parties are represented in other elected positions, or were formerly represented in Parliament. Analysts have remarked upon the apparent lack of ideological differences among the three major national parties<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4904198.stm Bob Tyrrell: ''Is British politics ideology-free?'', BBC News, 13 April 2006]</ref>, an impression that is supported by a comparison of their 2010 election manifestoes<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8515961.stm ''Where They Stand: Guide to party election policies'', Election 2010, BBC News]</ref>.
Since the 1920s, the two largest political parties in British politics have been the Labour Party and the Conservative Party. Although there have been occasional coalition and minority governments, the first-past-the-post electoral system used for general elections tends to maintain the dominance of these two parties, though each has in the past century relied upon a third party to deliver a working majority in Parliament.<ref> [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/vote2005/past_elections/html/default.stm General Election results through time, 1945-2001] BBC News, Accessed May 19, 2006</ref> The Liberal Democrats are the third largest party, and seek to reform the electoral system to address the dominance of the two-party system.<ref> [http://www.libdems.org.uk/media/documents/policies/22Constitution.pdf Constitutional Reform] Liberal Democrats election change proposals, Accessed May 19, 2006</ref>


===Internal political tensions===
===The current administration===
Independence for the [[Republic of Ireland]] in 1922 provided the major solution the 'Irish Question'. Competing demands for a united Ireland or continued union with the UK have brought civil strife and political instability most notably since 1969 when then Prime Minister [[Harold Wilson]] sent troops to Northern Ireland as peacekeepers, embroiling them in the so-called "Troubles" for the next thirty years. There has been a gradual decrease in violence since the late 1980s, though the situation remains tense, with the hard line parties, such as [[Sinn Féin]] and the [[Democratic Unionist]]s, now holding the most parliamentary seats (see [[Demography and politics of Northern Ireland]]) in the devolved [[Northern Ireland Assembly]].  The Assembly had been suspended since October 2002 due to a lack of cross-community support, but was fully restored on 8th May, 2007.<ref>See [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/6634373.stm BBC news: 'Historic return for NI Assembly.] Retrieved 8th May, 2007.</ref>


Though 'nationalist' (as opposed to 'unionist') tendencies have shifted over time in Scotland and Wales, with the [[Scottish National Party]] founded in 1934 and [[Plaid Cymru]] (the Party of Wales) in 1925, a serious political crisis threatening the integrity of the UK as a state has not occurred since the 1970s. Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland each possess a legislature and government alongside that of the UK. However, this increased autonomy and devolution of executive and legislative powers has not contributed to a reduction in support for independence from the UK.
The [[2019 United Kingdom general election]] resulted in a majority for the [[Conservative Party]] led by [[Boris Johnson]]. He was succeeded as [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] by [[Liz Truss]] on 6th September 2022, and she in turn was succeeded by [[Rishi Sunak]] on 25th October.


There is currently little appetite for a devolved English parliament, although senior Conservatives and Liberal Democrats have voiced concerns in regard to the [[West Lothian Question]] <ref>{{cite web|last=Jones |first=George | date=[[2006-01-17]] |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/01/17/nscot17.xml |title=Baker seeks end to West Lothian question |publisher=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |accessdate=2006-05-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| date=[[2006-03-10]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4792120.stm |title=No English parliament - Falconer |publisher=[[BBC]] |accessdate=2006-05-16}}</ref>. Proposals for English regional government have stalled, following a poorly received proposals for devolved government for the North East of England, hitherto considered the region most in favour of the idea. The proposal were rejected by referenda in the regions. England is therefore governed according to the balance of parties across the whole of the UK.
===Regional Structure===
====Devolution====
Following [[/Addendum#Devolution|devolution]] referendums in Scotland and Wales in 1997, and in both parts of Ireland in 1998, the United Kingdom  Parliament transferred a range of powers to national parliaments or assemblies<ref>[http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/UKgovernment/Devolvedgovernment/DG_073306. ''Devolved government in the UK'', DirectGov, 2012]</ref>.  The arrangements are different in the three parts of the country, reflecting their history and administrative structures.  The Scottish Government develops and implements policy on matters that include health, education, justice, rural affairs and transport<ref>[http://home.scotland.gov.uk/home ''The Scottish Government'']</ref>, and is accountable to the Scottish Parliament<ref>[http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/ ''The Scottish Parliament'', 2012]</ref>.
The Welsh Assembly Government<ref>[http://new.wales.gov.uk/?lang=en ''Welsh Government'', 2012]</ref> has responsibilities which include health, education, economic development, culture, the environment and transport, and is accountable to the National Assembly for Wales<ref>[http://www.assemblywales.org/ ''National Assembly for Wales'', 2012]</ref>. The Northern Ireland Executive<ref>[http://www.northernireland.gov.uk/ ''Northern Ireland Executive'', 2012]</ref> is responsible for economic and social matters, agriculture and rural development, culture, arts, education, health, social services and public safety, and is accountable to the Northern Ireland Assembly<ref>[http://www.niassembly.gov.uk/ ''Northern Ireland Assembly'', 2012]</ref>. The United Kingdom Parliament is still able to pass legislation for any part of the United Kingdom, though in practice it only deals with devolved matters with the agreement of the devolved governments.


Signs of small-scale resurgence in Celtic, Scottish, Welsh, Irish and Cornish culture, as well as 'regional' politics and development, have contributed to forces pulling against the unity of the state <ref> [http://www.manxman.co.im/cleague/ Celtic League Homepage] The Celtic League, Accessed May 20 2006 </ref>, there is little sign of any imminent 'crisis' (at the last General Election in 2005, both the [[Scottish National Party]] and [[Plaid Cymru]] saw their percentage of the overall vote drop, though the SNP gained two more seats and are the largest party in the [[Scottish Parliament]] as well as the government there). Nevertheless some in Scotland would like [[Scottish independence|independence]] <ref>{{cite web| date=[[2006-04-03]] |url=http://www.yougov.co.uk/archives/pdf/TOQ060101001_1.pdf |title=YOUGOV/SNP Survey results |publisher=[[Yougov]] |accessdate=2006-08-01|format={{PDFlink}}|pages=7}}</ref> although most English do not<ref>{{cite web|last=Lessware |first=Jonathan | date=[[2006-07-16]] |url=http://scotlandonsunday.scotsman.com/politics.cfm?id=1034962006 |title=English do not want to split Union, poll shows |publisher=[[Scotland on Sunday]] |accessdate=2006-08-01}}</ref>.
====Local Government====
The United Kingdom is divided, for the purposes of government, into a set of
further [[/Addendum#Administrative subdivisions|administrative subdivisions]]. In most of England there are two levels of local government: a county council and a district council. County councils cover large areas and provide  public services that include  schools, social services, and public transportation. District councils cover smaller areas and provide more local services, including council housing, gyms and leisure facilities, local planning, recycling and trash collection. In most large towns and cities, and in some small counties, there is only one level of local government responsible for all local services. In London, each borough is a unitary authority, but the Greater London Authority provides London-wide  services including transport and police. In Scotland there is a unitary system with one level of local government. In Northern Ireland there are local councils, but most services are carried out by other organisations. In some parts of England and Wales there are also town and parish councils that are responsible for services like allotments, public toilets, parks and ponds, war memorials, and local halls and community centres. In Wales, they are called community councils. In Scotland there are community councils with fewer powers. There is no equivalent in Northern Ireland.


==Law==
==Law==
The UK has three distinct systems of law. [[English law]], which applies in England and Wales; Northern Ireland law, which applies in Northern Ireland, and [[Scots Law]] in Scotland. The first two are based mainly on common-law principles, except for a few areas. Scots law, which applies only in Scotland, combines both civil-law and common-law principles. The Acts of Union 1707 guarantee the continued existence of a separate law system for Scotland.
The United Kingdom has three systems of law: one for England and Wales, one for Northern Ireland and one for Scotland. In  England and Wales and Northern Ireland they are "common law systems", under which decisions are determined by precedent, except where precedent is overruled by  legislation (as distinct from "civil law systems" under which decisions are determined exclusively by legislative enactment). Scotland has a "mixed jurisdiction system" which is a mixture of common law and civil law. Each system has a hierarchy of courts, and each permits appeal to a higher court against a decision of a lower court. In England and Wales, the court system includes the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice (for civil cases) and the Crown Court (for criminal cases). In Scotland, the principal courts are the Court of Session, for civil cases, and the High Court of Justiciary, for criminal cases, and the sheriff court is the Scottish equivalent of the English county court. The United Kingdom's highest court is the [[Supreme Court (United Kingdom)|Supreme Court]],<ref>[http://www.supremecourt.gov.uk/ ''The Supreme Court'', 2012]</ref> roughly speaking. The  provisions of the European Communities Act 1972  require United Kingdom courts to apply European law, and to give it preference when it conflicts with previous parliamentary legislation<ref>[http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/european.htm ''European Law as a source of UK Law'', UK Law online, 2012]</ref>.  The Human Rights Act 1998<ref>[http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1998/42/contents ''Human Rights Act 1998'', Legislation.gov.uk]</ref> embodies the provisions of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]].
 
The Appelate Committee of the House of Lords (usually just referred to, confusingly, as "The House of Lords") is the highest court in the land for all criminal and civil cases in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and for all civil cases in Scots law. Recent constitutional changes will see the powers of the House of Lords transfer to a new Supreme Court of the UK. <ref> "[http://www.dca.gov.uk/consult/supremecourt/supreme.pdf Constitutional reform: A Supreme Court for the United Kingdom]", [[Department for Constitutional Affairs]], Accessed May 22, 2006. {{PDFlink}} </ref>
 
The UK legal system is dualist, that is to say, there is a clear separation between domestic legislation and international treaties or obligations. This has two direct consequences. First, without specific implementing domestic legislation, such as that for the [[European Convention on Human Rights]], it is not normally possible to invoke international law in UK courts. Secondly, it permits the government to enter into international agreements without popular assent (for instance, by means of a referendum); generally, minor international treaties are not even scrutinised by Parliament, and are simply approved by the monarch as [[Orders in Council]].
 
In England and Wales, the court system is headed by the Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice (for civil cases) and the Crown Court (for criminal cases). In Scotland, the chief courts are the Court of Session, for civil cases, and the High Court of Justiciary, for criminal cases, while the [[sheriff court]] is the Scottish equivalent of the county court.
 
The "Judicial Committee of the Privy Council" is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the UK overseas territories, and the British crown dependencies.


==Geography==
==Geography==
The UK today comprises the island of [[Great Britain]], [[Northern Ireland]] - on the island of [[Ireland]] - and numerous smaller islands in the surrounding seas.  
The United Kingdom comprises the island of [[Great Britain]], [[Northern Ireland]], and numerous smaller islands in the surrounding seas. It is bounded by the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and its ancillary bodies of water, including the [[North Sea]], the [[English Channel]], the [[Celtic Sea]], and the [[Irish Sea]]. On the island of Ireland, Northern Ireland has a land border with the [[Republic of Ireland]] to the south and west. There are several islands which are not part of the United Kingdom, including the Isle of Man, Jersey,  Guernsey and Alderney). They are all [[British Crown Dependencies]], which means that they are effectively self-governing with their own legislature and tax systems: the UK remains responsible for foreign policy and in certain circumstances has legal authority superior to the parliaments.


The UK is bounded by the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and its ancillary bodies of water, including the [[North Sea]], the [[English Channel]], the [[Celtic Sea]], and the [[Irish Sea]]. On the island of Ireland, Northern Ireland has a land border with the [[Republic of Ireland]] to the south and west.<ref>
Most of England consists of rolling lowland, divided east from west by mountains in the Northwest ([[Cumbrian Mountains]] of the [[Lake District]]) and north (the upland moors of the [[Pennines]]) and limestone hills of the [[Peak District]] by the [[Tees-Exe line]]. The lower limestone hills of the [[Isle of Purbeck]], [[Cotswolds]], [[Lincolnshire]] and [[chalk]] downs of the [[Southern England Chalk Formation]]. The main rivers and estuaries are the [[Thames]], [[Severn]] and the [[Humber|Humber Estuary]]. The largest urban area is [[Greater London]]. Near [[Dover, England|Dover]], the [[Channel Tunnel]] links the UK to [[France]].<ref> [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/uk.html#Geo Geography of the United Kingdom] CIA, Accessed May 22 2006</ref> The highest mountain in England is [[Scafell Pike]] in the [[Lake District]], at 978m (3,208 ft).


There are several islands which are not part of the U.K.  These include the Isle of Man, Jersey, and Guernsey (which governs Alderney). They are all [[British Crown Dependencies]], which means that they are effectively self-governing with their own legislature and tax systems: the UK remains responsible for foreign policy and in certain circumstances has legal authority superior to the parliaments.</ref>
[[Scotland's geography]] is varied, with lowlands in the south and east and highlands in the north and west, including [[Ben Nevis]], the highest mountain in the British Isles at 1,343m (4,406&nbsp;ft). There are many long and deep-sea arms, [[firth]]s, and [[loch]]s. Scotland has nearly 800 [[Scottish islands|islands]], mainly west and north of the mainland, notably the [[Hebrides]], [[Orkney Islands]] and [[Shetland Islands]]. The capital city is [[Edinburgh]], the centre of which is a [[World Heritage site]]. The largest city is [[Glasgow]].<ref> [http://www.heritage-of-scotland.com/geog.htm Geography of Scotland] Heritage of Scotland, Accessed May 22 2006</ref> The UK has about 1,000 islands, with 700 in Scotland alone.<ref> [http://www.celticlegend.co.uk/dialysis/scotland.htm Dialysis Scotland] Accessed May 22, 2006</ref>
 
Most of England consists of rolling lowland, divided east from west by mountains in the Northwest ([[Cumbrian Mountains]] of the [[Lake District]]) and north (the upland moors of the [[Pennines]]) and limestone hills of the [[Peak District]] by the [[Tees-Exe line]]. The lower limestone hills of the [[Isle of Purbeck]], [[Cotswolds]], [[Lincolnshire]] and [[chalk]] downs of the [[Southern England Chalk Formation]]. The main rivers and estuaries are the [[Thames]], [[Severn]] and the [[Humber|Humber Estuary]]. The largest urban area is [[Greater London]]. Near [[Dover, England|Dover]], the [[Channel Tunnel]] links the UK to [[France]]. <ref> [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/uk.html#Geo Geography of the United Kingdom] CIA, Accessed May 22 2006</ref> The highest mountain in England is [[Scafell Pike]] in the [[Lake District]], at 978m (3,208 ft).
 
[[Scotland's geography]] is varied, with lowlands in the south and east and highlands in the north and west, including [[Ben Nevis]], the highest mountain in the British Isles at 1,343m (4,406&nbsp;ft). There are many long and deep-sea arms, [[firth]]s, and [[loch]]s. Scotland has nearly 800 [[Scottish islands|islands]], mainly west and north of the mainland, notably the [[Hebrides]], [[Orkney Islands]] and [[Shetland Islands]]. The capital city is [[Edinburgh]], the centre of which is a [[World Heritage Site]]. The largest city is [[Glasgow]] <ref> [http://www.heritage-of-scotland.com/geog.htm Geography of Scotland] Heritage of Scotland, Accessed May 22 2006</ref>The UK has about 1,000 islands, with 700 in Scotland alone <ref> [http://www.celticlegend.co.uk/dialysis/scotland.htm Dialysis Scotland] Accessed May 22, 2006</ref>.


Wales (''Cymru in [[Welsh language|Welsh]]'') is mostly mountainous, the highest peak being [[Snowdon]] (Yr Wyddfa) at 1,085m (3,560&nbsp;ft) above sea level. North of the mainland is the island of [[Anglesey]] (Ynys Môn). The largest city, [[Cardiff]] (Caerdydd), has been the Welsh capital since 1955.<ref> [http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/culture/sites/aboutwales/pages/geography.shtml Geography of Wales] [[BBC]] Wales, Accessed May 22 2006</ref> The greatest concentration of people live in the south, in the cities of [[Swansea]] and [[Newport]], as well as Cardiff, and the South Wales Valleys. The largest town in North Wales is [[Wrexham]].
Wales (''Cymru in [[Welsh language|Welsh]]'') is mostly mountainous, the highest peak being [[Snowdon]] (Yr Wyddfa) at 1,085m (3,560&nbsp;ft) above sea level. North of the mainland is the island of [[Anglesey]] (Ynys Môn). The largest city, [[Cardiff]] (Caerdydd), has been the Welsh capital since 1955.<ref> [http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/culture/sites/aboutwales/pages/geography.shtml Geography of Wales] [[BBC]] Wales, Accessed May 22 2006</ref> The greatest concentration of people live in the south, in the cities of [[Swansea]] and [[Newport]], as well as Cardiff, and the South Wales Valleys. The largest town in North Wales is [[Wrexham]].


Northern Ireland, making up the north-eastern part of Ireland, is mostly hilly. The capital is [[Belfast]] ('Béal Feirste' in [[Irish language|Irish]]), with other major cities being [[Derry|Londonderry/Derry]] ('Doire' in [[Irish language|Irish]]) and Armagh. The province includes one of the UK’s [[World Heritage Sites]], the [[Giant's Causeway]], which consists of more than 40,000 six-sided basalt columns up to 40 feet (12 m) high. [[Lough Neagh]], the largest body of water in the [[British Isles]] (388&nbsp;km²&nbsp;/&nbsp;150&nbsp;mi²), can be found in [[Northern Ireland]]. <ref> [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/ni/geog.htm Geography of Northern Ireland] [[University of Ulster]] Accessed May 22 2006]] </ref>. The highest peak is [[Slieve Donard]] at 849m (2,786 ft) in the [[Mourne Mountains]].
Northern Ireland, making up the north-eastern part of Ireland, is mostly hilly. The capital is [[Belfast]] ('Béal Feirste' in [[Irish language|Irish]]), with other major cities being [[Derry|Londonderry/Derry]] ('Doire' in [[Irish language|Irish]]) and Armagh. The province includes one of the UK’s [[World Heritage sites]], the [[Giant's Causeway]], which consists of more than 40,000 hexagonal basalt columns up to 40 feet (12 m) high. [[Lough Neagh]], the largest body of water in the [[British Isles]] (388&nbsp;km²&nbsp;/&nbsp;150&nbsp;mi²), can be found in [[Northern Ireland]].<ref> [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/ni/geog.htm Geography of Northern Ireland] [[University of Ulster]] Accessed May 22 2006]] </ref> The highest peak is [[Slieve Donard]] at 849m (2,786 ft) in the [[Mourne Mountains]].


===Climate===
===Climate===
England has a temperate climate, with plentiful rainfall all year round. The seasons are quite variable in temperature, but temperatures rarely fall below −5°C (23°F) or rise above 30°C (86°F). The prevailing wind is from the southwest, bringing mild and wet weather regularly from the Atlantic Ocean. It is driest in the east and warmest in the southeast. Snowfall can occur in Winter and early Spring, though it is uncommon away from high ground. The highest temperature recorded in England is 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) on 10 August 2003 at Brogdale, near Faversham, in Kent. [1]. The lowest temperature recorded  is −26.1 °C (−15.0 °F) on 10 January 1982 at Edgmond, near Newport, in Shropshire. [2]
England has a temperate climate, with plentiful rainfall all year round. The seasons are quite variable in temperature, but temperatures rarely fall below −5°C (23°F) or rise above 30°C (86°F). The prevailing wind is from the south-west, bringing mild and wet weather regularly from the Atlantic Ocean. It is driest in the east and warmest in the south-east. Snowfall can occur in Winter and early Spring, though it is uncommon away from high ground. The highest temperature recorded in England is 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) on 10 August 2003 at Brogdale, near Faversham, in Kent. [1]. The lowest temperature recorded  is −26.1 °C (−15.0 °F) on 10 January 1982 at Edgmond, near Newport, in Shropshire. [2]


Wales' climate is similar, with the highest temperature recorded at 35.2°C (95.4°F) in Hawarden Bridge, Flintshire on 2 August 1990, and the lowest temperature at -23.3°C (-10°F) in Rhayader, Radnorshire on 21 January 1940. [1]
Wales' climate is similar, with the highest temperature recorded at 35.2°C (95.4°F) in Hawarden Bridge, Flintshire on 2 August 1990, and the lowest temperature at -23.3°C (-10°F) in Rhayader, Radnorshire on 21 January 1940. [1]
Line 138: Line 70:


===Cities===
===Cities===
Due to differences between the administrative boundaries and metropolitan areas of cities, and because of merging of settlements into conurbations, there are many different statistics and debates on which cities are the UK's largest. The capitals of the UK's constituent countries are London (England), Edinburgh (Scotland), Cardiff (Wales) and Belfast (Northern Ireland). London is by far the UK's largest city, whilst [[Birmingham]] is considered, population-wise, the 'second city'.
Due to differences between the administrative boundaries and metropolitan areas of cities, and because of merging of settlements into conurbations, there are many different statistics and debates on which cities are the UK's largest. The capitals of the UK's constituent countries are London (England), Edinburgh (Scotland), Cardiff (Wales) and Belfast (Northern Ireland). London is by far the UK's largest city,<ref>using the term in an objective sense; officially, Greater London is not a city, the population of the official "City" of London is in four figures, and Birmingham is the largest city</ref> whilst [[Birmingham]] is considered, population-wise, the 'second city'.


==Demography==
==Demography==
In the April [[2001 UK Census]], the UK population was 58,789,194, the third largest in the European Union (behind Germany and France) and the twenty-first largest in the world. This had been estimated up to 59,834,300 <ref>"[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=6 UK population approaches 60 million]", Office for National Statistics, 25 August 2005; Retrieved 14 May 2006.</ref> by the [[Office for National Statistics]] in 2004. Two years later it had increased to 60.2 million, largely from net immigration, but also because of a rising birth rate and increasing life expectancy.  In 2007 birth per woman were 1.84 (up from 1.74 in 2005); the net annual migration was 190,000 (up from 145,000 in 2005), and the life expectancy at birth for females was 86.2 years (up from 85.0). If these patterns continue, future population growth will be rapid, rising from a total of 59.1 million in 2001 to 62 million in 2011, 66 million in 2021, and 75 million in 2061.<ref>Based on projections by David Coleman, professor of demography at Oxford University, reported by Ben Leapman, "UK 'will swell to 75m' as migrants raise births,"  ''Telegraph'' Oct. 21, 2007, at [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/10/21/nhomes121.xml&DCMP=EMC-new_21102007]  </ref>
The UK population according to the 2011 census was 63,181,775.<ref>[http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_292378.pdf]</ref> In 2007 birth per woman were 1.84 (up from 1.74 in 2005); the net annual migration was 190,000 (up from 145,000 in 2005), and the life expectancy at birth for females was 86.2 years (up from 85.0).  


Its overall population density is one of the highest in the world. About a quarter of the population lives in the south-east <ref>[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/pyramids/pages/j.asp Census 2001: South East], Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 14 May 2006.</ref> and is predominantly urban and suburban, with an estimated 7,517,700 in the capital of London. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/reports/lmp/la/2038431860/subreports/pop_time_series/report.aspx |title=All people population: City of London |publisher=Office for National Statistics |accessdate=2006-08-31}}</ref> The United Kingdom's high literacy rate (99%) <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.humana.org/Article.asp?TxtID=223&SubMenuItemID=183&MenuItemID=43 |title=United Kingdom |publisher=Humana |accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> is attributable to universal public education introduced for the primary level in 1870 and secondary level in 1900 (except in Scotland where it was introduced in 1696). Education is mandatory from ages five to sixteen.  
Its overall population density is one of the highest in the world. About a quarter of the population lives in the south-east<ref>[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/pyramids/pages/j.asp Census 2001: South East], Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 14 May 2006.</ref> and is predominantly urban and suburban, with an estimated 7,517,700 in the capital of London.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/reports/lmp/la/2038431860/subreports/pop_time_series/report.aspx |title=All people population: City of London |publisher=Office for National Statistics |accessdate=2006-08-31}}</ref> The United Kingdom's high literacy rate (99%)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.humana.org/Article.asp?TxtID=223&SubMenuItemID=183&MenuItemID=43 |title=United Kingdom |publisher=Humana |accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> is attributable to universal public education established by law for the primary level in 1870 (though in fact nearly all children of primary age were already attending school) and secondary level in 1900 (except in Scotland where it was introduced in 1696). Education is mandatory from ages four or five (dependent on birth date) to sixteen.  
===Population history===
===Population history===
The lands now constituting the UK have been subject to many invasions and migrations, especially from Scandinavia and the continent, including Roman occupation for several centuries. The Romans, however, left a minimal long-term impact on the culture. The Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse cultural traditions were blended under the Normans after this French-speaking group invaded and conquered England in 1066. Between the various constituent countries, there has been sufficient internal migration to mix the population.
The lands now constituting the UK have been subject to many invasions and migrations, especially from Scandinavia and the continent of Europe, including Roman occupation for several centuries. The Romans, however, left a minimal long-term impact on the culture. The Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse cultural traditions were blended under the Normans after that French-speaking group invaded and conquered England in 1066.
 
===Immigration===
===Immigration===
Immigration has come through interaction with continental Europe and ties forged by the British Empire. Constant waves of immigration hit the UK, with Europe, Africa and South-East Asia being the biggest areas from where people emigrate. As of 2001, 7.9% of the UK's population identified themselves as an 'ethnic minority'.<ref> [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=273 Ethnicity] National Statistics Online, Accessed June 3, 2006 </ref>
Immigration has come through interaction with continental Europe and ties forged by the British Empire. Continuous waves of immigration have brought people to the UK, with Europe, Africa and South-East Asia being the biggest areas from where people emigrate. The UK has amongst the highest immigration rates in Europe, along with Italy and Spain<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/immigration/story/0,,1852513,00.html|title=Immigration fails to stem European population loss | date=2006-08-17| accessdate=2006-08-20| publisher=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> In the Greater London area the 2011 census found only 45% of the population identifying themselves as "White British"<ref>[http://www.standard.co.uk/news/uk/census-reveals-white-britons-as-minority-in-capital-for-first-time-8405998.html]</ref> and only about 43% identifying as English. The latest wave of immigration began in May 2004 when the European Union was expanded. From May 2004 to June 2006, around 600,000 people from Central and Eastern Europe emigrated to the UK to work; this figure is for arrivals only and does not take account of people leaving, so net migration will be lower.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/5273356.stm 'Nearly 600,000' new EU migrants], BBC, 22 August 2006. Retrieved 22 August 2006.</ref> In 2004 net migration from EU states stood at 74,000.<ref>[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=1311 International migration: Net inflow rose in 2004], ONS, 15 December 2005. Retrieved 24 August 2006.</ref>
The UK has amongst the highest immigration rates in Europe, along with Italy and Spain <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/immigration/story/0,,1852513,00.html|title=Immigration fails to stem European population loss | date=2006-08-17| accessdate=2006-08-20| publisher=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> it is now believed that the percentage of 'ethnic minorities' is some 9% <ref name="ethnic britain">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/uk/2758453.stm|date=2003-02-13|accessdate=2006-05-21|title=A picture of ethnic Britain|publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref>of the total UK population. In some UK cities the percentage of '[[minority group]]s' is large but is still less than half, for example; Birmingham (UK's 2nd largest city) has 29.6% <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.compas.ox.ac.uk/publications/papers/Birmingham%20Background%20Paper%200206.pdf |title=Race Equality in the City of Birmingham| date=2005| accessdate=2006-05-21| publisher=[[University of Oxford]]| pages=23|format={{PDFlink}} }}</ref>, Leicester 36% <ref name="ethnic britain"/>.
The latest figures (for 2004) show a record level of immigration, with net migration to the UK of 223,000. <ref>[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/pdfdir/intermig1005.pdf Office for National Statistics Press] release dated 20th Oct 2005.</ref>
The latest wave of immigration began in May 2004 when the European Union was expanded. From May 2004 to June 2006, around 600,000 people from Central and Eastern Europe emigrated to the UK to work; this figure is for arrivals only and does not take account of people leaving, so net migration will be lower. <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/5273356.stm 'Nearly 600,000' new EU migrants], BBC, 22 August 2006. Retrieved 22 August 2006.</ref>. In 2004 net migration from EU states stood at 74,000. <ref>[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=1311 International migration: Net inflow rose in 2004], ONS, 15 December 2005. Retrieved 24 August 2006.</ref> A large number of Indians, mainly from northern India, make up about 2% of the population. <ref>[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/uk.html][[CIA]], 9 September 2006, Retrieved 9 September 2006 </ref>


===Language===
===Language===
[[English language|English]] is understood and used everyday by the vast majority of British people. Its continued use is therefore of some cultural importance; the British enjoy the prestige and status of being a major English-speaking nation whose language acts as a common ''lingua franca'' for millions worldwide.
[[English language|English]] is understood and used everyday by the vast majority of British people. Its continued use is therefore of some cultural importance; the British enjoy the prestige and status of being a major English-speaking nation whose language acts as a common ''[[lingua franca]]'' for millions worldwide.
 
Various laws and procedures award some degree of recognition to other indigenous languages of the UK: for example, the [[Scottish Parliament]] and [[Welsh Assembly]] are devolved political bodies which have named [[Scots Gaelic]] and [[Welsh language|Welsh]] as ''[[official language]]s'' of their nations. European Union legislation designed to protect ''[[minority language]]s'' has also granted some legislative protection to such languages as [[Scots language|Scots]], [[Cornish language|Cornish]] and [[British Sign Language]] (BSL). In contrast, though English is recognised in Scotland and Wales, no legal document explicitly defines it as an official language of the whole UK, meaning that the tongue of the overwhelming majority is protected by its sheer number of speakers rather than any act of parliament.


The UK's native languages, aside from BSL, can be divided into two families: English and Scots are two closely-related [[Germanic languages]], while Welsh, Scots Gaelic, [[Irish language|Irish]] and Cornish are [[Celtic languages|Celtic]].<ref> The [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]] [[Romani language|Romani]], which is spoken by the [[Roma]] minority, is not native to the UK, though its speakers are mostly British.</ref>
Various laws and procedures award some degree of recognition to other indigenous languages of the UK: for example, in 2011, Welsh became an [[official language]] of Wales through legislation passed by the [[Welsh Assembly]]<ref>''BBC News'': '[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-11934239 'Historic' assembly vote for new Welsh language law]'. 7th December 2010.</ref>, and Scottish law promotes [[Scots Gaelic]] with a view to making it official. In Northern Ireland, [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[Ulster Scots]] are officially-recognised minority varieties. European Union legislation designed to protect ''[[minority language]]s'' has also granted some legislative protection to such languages as [[Scots language|Scots]], [[Cornish language|Cornish]] and [[British Sign Language]] (BSL). In contrast, though English is recognised in Scotland and Wales, no legal document explicitly defines it as an official language of the whole UK, meaning that the tongue of the overwhelming majority is protected by its sheer number of speakers rather than any act of parliament (though all acts of the British Parliament are in English).


Romani is a language brought to the UK's shores through immigration, but in the UK the term ''[[immigrant languages]]'' is generally reserved for more recent arrivals. The open passport system in the Commonwealth enabled immigration from former colonies.  The UK includes the largest groups of Hindi and Punjabi speakers outside Asia. Such groups may maintain ties with historic homelands while playing an active part in all aspects of British life.
The UK's native languages, aside from BSL, can be divided into two families: English and Scots are two closely-related [[Germanic languages]], while Welsh, Scots Gaelic, Irish and Cornish are [[Celtic languages|Celtic]].<ref> The [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]] [[Romani language|Romani]], which is spoken by the [[Roma]] minority, is not native to the UK, though its speakers are mostly British.</ref>


Even more recently, the expansion of the [[European Union]] in 2004 to accommodate ten mainly Eastern European countries has led to increased, although predominantly temporary, immigration. In a typical British urban area, therefore, languages such as Polish may be heard alongside Urdu and Bengali; likewise, English as a first or second language will be common to most of these speakers.
Romani is a language brought to the UK's shores through immigration, but in the UK the term ''[[immigrant languages]]'' is generally reserved for more recent arrivals. The open passport system in the Commonwealth enabled immigration from former colonies. The UK includes the largest groups of Hindi and Punjabi speakers outside Asia. Such groups may maintain ties with historic homelands while playing an active part in all aspects of British life.


Even more recently, the expansion of the [[European Union]] in 2004 to accommodate ten mainly Eastern European countries has led to increased, although predominantly temporary, immigration. In a typical British urban area, therefore, languages such as Polish may be heard alongside Urdu and Bengali; likewise, English as a first or second language will be common to most of these speakers. Polish is currently the UKs second most spoken language, though this may cease to be true after the UK leaves the EU.


=== Religion ===
=== Religion ===
The UK has one of the lowest levels of worship in the world; fewer than 8% of people attend any form of worship regularly. <ref>"[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/graphics/2004/12/27/nfaith27big.gif God and the secular society]", ''Telegraph'' YouGov Poll, retrieved 14 May 2006.</ref>
The United Kingdom is an increasingly secular society. Numbers saying they have no religion vary substantially with the exact form of the question, but time series indicate a substantial increase, and some surveys now give a majority. However, this overall decline masks increases, sometimes substantial, in non-Christian religions.<ref>2011 census data give the following percentage increases in absolute numbers over the 2001 census: Muslims 75, Buddhists 72, Hindus 49, Sikhs 29, Jews 1, total other religions 47; for comparison, the total for no religion or not stated (in 2001, these were not separated in all parts of the country) increased by 52%, while the figure for Christians decreased by 11%. What would have been the 2021 census for Scotland was postponed for a year because of the Covid-19 pandemic, but the rest of the country went ahead. As a result, there are no UK-wide figures for any one date. However, the figures for England and Wales, which include most of the population, clearly show even nominal Christians now a minority. Other religions have continued to grow (religions added together still include the majority of the population), with the highest proportionate growth being for Shamanism, though it still has small absolute numbers.</ref> Similarly, the decline in Christianity masks growth in some forms, particularly some Evangelical/Pentecostal churches.
<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.christian-research.org.uk/res.htm |title=Percentage of population attending church on Sunday by age-group |publisher=Christian Research |accessdate=2006-05-30}}</ref>. The main religion  is Christianity <ref name="Christians">"[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 Census shows 72% identify as Christians]", Office for National Statistics, Retrieved 14 May 2006</ref>. Although 72% of Britons identify themselves as 'Christian', relatively few attend public worship every week.
 
The [[Church of England]] is the officially [[established church]] in England, and is the senior branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion. Originally established as part of the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] Church in 597 AD by [[Augustine of Canterbury]], the Church split from Rome in 1534 during the reign of Henry VIII. The Church of England is a state church, and some of the bishops sit in the House of Lords. The British monarch must be a member of the Church of England<ref> According to the [[Act of Settlement 1701]]</ref> and is the Supreme Governor. Roman Catholics are forbidden from becoming monarch or marrying into the line of succession. The Church of England is based at [[Canterbury Cathedral]] and the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] is the senior clergyman.
 
The [[Church of Scotland]] (known informally as The Kirk) is the national church of Scotland. It is a [[Presbyterian]] church and is not subject to state control. The British monarch is an ordinary member. Splits in the Church since the Reformation led to the creation of various other Presbyterian churches, but most have now reunited into the main body.
 
In Wales, the [[Church in Wales]] was disestablished in the 1920s, although it remains in the Anglican communion. The Anglican [[Church of Ireland]] was disestablished in the 19th century.
 
The [[Roman Catholic Church in Great Britain|Roman Catholic Church]] is the second largest denomination of Christianity in the UK. While Catholic church attendance is falling, it is falling at a slower rate than Anglican attendance. Recent surveys indicate that more Catholics attend service on a weekly basis than Anglicans <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/12/23/nchurch123.xml Daily Telegraph ''Britain has become a 'Catholic country'''by Jonathan Wynne-Jones 26/12/2007]</ref>After the Reformation, strict laws were passed against Catholics; Catholicism was legalized in 1778 and Catholic churches in 1791; exclusion of Roman Catholics from most offices was abolished in 1829. The Catholic hierarchy is separate in England and Wales, Scotland.
 
In Northern Ireland, the [[Roman Catholicism in Ireland|Catholic Church in Ireland]] is the largest denomination. The [[Presbyterian Church in Ireland]] is the largest Protestant denomination and in theology and history is very closely linked to the Church of Scotland. Other large Christian groups are the Methodists and the Baptists.
 
As well as Christianity, [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Sikhism]] have many followers in the UK., [[Judaism]] and other religions have smaller numbers. Muslims are believed to number over 1.8 million, with many of them concentrated in urban areas including London, Birmingham, Bradford and Oldham. <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3933-2299410,00.html |title=We need imams who can speak to young Muslims in their own words |accessdate=2006-08-09 |date=2006-08-05 |publisher=The Times}} </ref>
Mosques are a common sight in modern day Britain. The biggest groups of British Muslims are of Pakistani and Bangladeshi origin.  


The religions of Indian origin are also increasing, with over 500,000 Hindus and 320,000 Sikhs in the country. <ref>  
In terms of actual religious practice, 62 percent of those surveyed say that they never attend a religious service<ref>[http://data.gov.uk/dataset/british-social-attitudes-survey ''The British Social Attitudes Survey'', data.gv.uk 2011]</ref>
{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/14/AR2006071401320.html |title=Hindus in Britain Stage Rare Open-Air Cremation
The Church of England is the officially [[established church]] in England, and is the senior branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion<ref>[http://www.anglicancommunion.org/ ''The Anglican Community'']</ref>. The [[Presbyterian]]  [[Church of Scotland]] (known  as "The Kirk") is the official national church of Scotland. In Wales, the [[Church in Wales]] is disestablished from the Church of England, but remains a member of the Anglican communion. The Roman Catholic Church is the country's second largest Christian denomination and is the largest denomination in Northern Ireland.
  |accessdate=2006-08-09 |date=2006-07-15 |publisher=[[Washington post]]}}</ref>
The Presbyterian Church in Ireland is closely linked to the Church of Scotland, and is the province's largest Protestant denomination. The United Kingdom's  Christian denominations also  include the Methodists and Baptists, and  there are substantial numbers of [[Islam|Muslims]], [[Hinduism|Hindus]] and [[Sikhism|Sikhs]] with [[Judaism]], [[Buddhism]] and other religions occurring in smaller numbers.


==Economy==
==Economy==
After [[World War II]], the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] [[Government of the United Kingdom|government]] [[nationalisation|nationalised]] leading sectors of the [[economy]], such as [[coal]], [[rail]] and [[steel]]. The [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] under [[Margaret Thatcher]] de-nationalized in the 1980s and promoted a policy of growth, liberalisation, deregulation, low [[tax]]ation and [[free trade]], which has been continued under the current 'New' Labour government. Based on market exchange rates, the UK is the fifth largest economy in the world; the second largest in Europe after [[Germany]], and the sixth-largest overall by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP) exchange rates.
''(the numbers quoted in this paragraph come from the OECD 2010 factbook[http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/oecd-factbook-2010_factbook-2010-en], unless otherwise stated)''


[[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] created the [[Industrial Revolution]] in the late eighteenth century and was the world leader in industrialisation for over a century (until about 1900). Initially, it concentrated on heavy industries such as textiles, shipbuilding, coal mining, iron and steel production, and railways. The [[British Empire]] provided an overseas market for British products and engineering. Using the financial leadership of the City (London), Britain dominated international trade until World War I. Heavy industry declined throughout the twentieth century. The [[service sector]], however, has grown substantially, and now makes up about 73% of GDP. <ref>{{cite web| date=[[2006-04-26]] |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Product.asp?vlnk=9333 |title=Index of Services (experimental) |publisher=Office for National Statistics |accessdate=2006-05-24}}</ref>
The United Kingdom has an open [[market economy]] with limited natural resources and a proficient  workforce. It is an industrialised economy with a small agricultural sector. In more precise terms, trade in goods and services amounts to around 30 percent of GDP, and there are no trade restrictions except for agricultural products. Seventy percent of the working age population is in employment, with proficiency levels in reading, mathematics and science that are close to the [[OECD]] average. Agricultural products account for less than one percent of the value of domestic output, as compared with 39 percent for production and distribution, 17 percent for government, health and education, and 8 per cent for finance and insurance<ref>Blue book par 2.1</ref>. It is a heavily indebted economy with a household debt burden among the highest in the world at about 160 percent of disposable income, and government debt in line with the OECD average at about 100 percent of GDP;  and the debt burden is expected to rise<ref>[http://budgetresponsibility.independent.gov.uk/wordpress/docs/household%20debt%20paper% ''Household debt forecast. Office of Budget Responsibility, April 2011]</ref>. As  percentages of GDP, total tax revenue, and taxation on corporate income are about the same as the OECD average, and the revenue from taxation on personal income is about 10 per cent higher. The economy is currently running at below capacity with an [[output gap]] of 4.4 percent, compared with a 3.4 percent OECD average, and the [[unemployment rate]] is 7.9 percent compared with an OECD average of 8.5 percent.
 
The service sector of the UK is dominated by [[financial services]], especially in banking and insurance. London is one of the world's largest financial centres with the [[London Stock Exchange]], the [[London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange]], and the [[Lloyd's of London]] insurance market all based in the city. It also has the largest concentration of foreign bank branches in the world. In the past decade, a rival financial centre in London has grown in the [[London Docklands|Docklands]] area, with [[HSBC]], [[Citigroup]], and [[Barclays plc|Barclays Bank]] all relocating their head offices there. The Scottish capital, [[Edinburgh]] also has a large financial sector, the sixth largest in [[Europe]] <ref>"[http://www.marklazarowicz.org.uk/parliament/speeches2003/4.30(WH).htm Debate on Scottish financial services industry]", [[Mark Lazarowicz]] Labour MP, 30 April 2003. Retrieved 16 May 2006.</ref>.
 
Tourism is very important to the British economy. With over 27 million tourists a year, the UK is the sixth major tourist destination in the world. <ref>{{cite web|last= |first= |url=http://www.world-tourism.org/facts/eng/pdf/highlights/2005_eng_high.pdf |title=International Tourism Receipts |format={{PDFlink}} |work=UNWTO Tourism Highlights, Edition 2005 |pages=12 |publisher=[[World Tourism Organization]] | language= |accessdate=2006-05-24}}</ref>
 
The British manufacturing sector, however, has greatly diminished since World War II, and accounted for just one-sixth of national output in 2003.<ref>[http://www.dti.gov.uk/ministers/speeches/hewitt150704b.html TUC Manufacturing Conference], [[Patricia Hewitt]] speech, Department for Trade and Industry, 15 July. Retrieved 16 May 2006.</ref>. The [[British motor industry]] is a significant part of this sector, although all large-volume producers are now foreign-owned. Civil and defence aircraft production is led by the United Kingdom's largest aerospace firm, [[BAE Systems]], and the pan-European consortium known as [[Airbus]]. [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls-Royce]] holds a major share of the global aerospace engines market. The chemical and pharmaceutical industry is also strong in the UK, with the world's second and third largest pharmaceutical firms ([[GlaxoSmithKline]] and [[AstraZeneca]], respectively) being based in the UK.
 
The UK's agriculture sector is small by European standards, accounting for only 0.9% of GDP. The UK though has large coal, natural gas, and [[Petroleum|oil]] reserves. Primary energy production accounts for about 10% of [[Gross domestic product]] (GDP), one of the highest shares of any industrial state.
 
The currency of the UK is [[pound sterling]], represented by the symbol £. The [[Bank of England]] is the central bank and is responsible for issuing currency, although banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover the issue. The UK chose not to join the [[euro]] on the currency's launch, although the government has pledged to hold a public referendum for deciding membership if "five economic tests" are met. <ref name="fivetests" /> Currently UK public opinion is against the notion. <ref>{{cite web| date=[[2005-02-28]] |url=http://www.mori.com/polls/2005/citigroup-feb.shtml |title=EMU Entry And EU Constitution |publisher=[[MORI]] |accessdate=2006-05-17}}</ref>
 
Government involvement over the economy is exercised by the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] (currently [[Alistair Darling]]) who heads the [[Treasury]], but the Prime Minister (currently [[Gordon Brown]]), is [[First Lord of the Treasury]] (the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] being the [[Second Lord of the Treasury]]). However since 1997, the Bank of England has had control of interest rates and other monetary policy.
 
==Administrative subdivisions==
The UK is divided into four parts, commonly referred to as the ''[[home nations]]'' or ''[[constituent country|constituent countries]]''. Each nation is further subdivided for the purposes of [[Local government in the United Kingdom|local government]]. The Queen appoints a [[Lord-Lieutenant]] as her personal representative in lieutenancy areas across the UK; this is little more than a ceremonial role. The following table highlights the arrangements for local government, lieutenancy areas and cities across the home nations of the UK:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Flag!!Country!!Status!!Population!!Subdivisions!!Cities
|-
|{{flagicon|England}} || [[England]] || [[Kingdom]] || 50,431,700 || [[Regions of England|Regions]] <br>[[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties]]<br>[[Ceremonial counties of England|Lieutenancy areas]] || [[:Template:English Cities|English Cities]]
|-
|{{flagicon|Scotland}} || [[Scotland]] || [[Kingdom]] || 5,094,800 || [[Subdivisions of Scotland|Council areas]]<br>[[Lieutenancy areas of Scotland|Lieutenancy areas]] || [[:Template:Scottish Cities|Scottish Cities]]
|-
|{{flagicon|Wales}} || [[Wales]] || [[Principality]] || 2,958,600 || [[Subdivisions of Wales|Unitary authorities]] <br> [[Preserved counties of Wales|Lieutenancy areas]]|| [[:Template:Welsh Cities|Welsh Cities]]
|-
|{{flagicon|Northern Ireland}} || [[Northern Ireland]] || [[Province]] || 1,724,400 || [[Districts of Northern Ireland|Districts]] <br> [[Counties of Northern Ireland|Traditional counties]] || [[:Template:IrishCities|Northern Irish Cities]]
|}
Historically, the four nations were divided into [[Traditional counties of the British Isles|counties]] as areas for local government administration. Although these are still used to some extent for this purpose and as geographical areas, they are no longer the sole basis for [[local]] government administration.
 
In recent years, England has for some purposes been divided into nine intermediate-level [[Regions of England|Government Office Regions]]. Each region is made up of [[metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|counties]] and [[unitary authorities]], apart from [[London]], which consists of [[London borough]]s. Although at one point it was intended that each or some of these regions would be given its own elected regional assembly, the plan's future is uncertain, [[as of 2004]], after the [[North East England|North East]] region rejected its proposed assembly in a referendum.
 
[[City status in the United Kingdom|City status]] is governed by [[Royal Charter]]. There are currently 66 British cities (50 in England; 6 in Scotland; 5 in Wales; and 5 in Northern Ireland).
 
The [[British crown|Crown]] has sovereignty over the [[Bailiwick]]s of [[Jersey]] and [[Guernsey]], and the [[Isle of Man]], known collectively as the [[crown dependencies]]. These are lands historically owned by the British monarch, but are not part of the United Kingdom itself. They are also not in the European Union. However, the Parliament of the United Kingdom has the authority to legislate for the dependencies, and the British government manages their foreign affairs and defence.
 
The UK also has fourteen [[British overseas territory|overseas territories]] around the world, the last remaining territories of the [[British Empire]]. The overseas territories are also not considered part of the UK, but in some cases the local populations have British citizenship and the right to abode in the UK.


==Armed Forces==
==Armed Forces==
The armed forces of the UK are known as the '''British Armed Forces''' or '''Her Majesty's Armed Forces''', but officially '''Armed Forces of the Crown'''. Their Commander-in-Chief is the British monarch, HM The Queen and they are managed by the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]]. The armed forces are controlled by the [[Defence Council]] currently headed by Air Chief Marshal Sir Jock Stirrup.
The armed forces of the UK are known as the '''British Armed Forces''' or '''His Majesty's Armed Forces''', but officially '''Armed Forces of the Crown'''. Their Commander-in-Chief is the British monarch, HM The King and they are managed by the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]]. The armed forces are controlled by the [[Defence Council]] currently headed by Air Chief Marshal Sir Jock Stirrup.


The UK fields one of the most powerful and comprehensive armed forces in the World. Its global power projection capabilities are second only to those of the United States Military. The UK has the 2nd highest military expenditure in the world after the USA.
The UK fields one of the most powerful and comprehensive armed forces in the World. Its global power projection capabilities are second only to those of the United States Military. The UK has the 2nd highest military expenditure in the world after the USA.


The UK has a comprehensive nuclear arsenal, one of the few countries to do so, using the submarine-based [[Trident missile|Trident II]] ballistic missile system with nuclear warheads. These [[Vanguard class submarine]]s were designed and built by [[Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering Ltd|VSEL]] (now [[BAE Systems Submarines]]) at [[Barrow-in-Furness]].
The UK has a comprehensive nuclear arsenal, one of the few countries to do so, using the submarine-based [[UGM-133 Trident D5|Trident II]] ballistic missile system with nuclear warheads. These [[Vanguard-class|Vanguard class submarines]] were designed and built by [[Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering Ltd|VSEL]] (now [[BAE Systems Submarines]]) at [[Barrow-in-Furness]].


The British Armed Forces are charged with protecting the UK and its overseas territories, promoting the UK's wider security interests, and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO) and other coalition operations.
The British Armed Forces are charged with protecting the UK and its overseas territories, promoting the UK's wider security interests, and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO) and other coalition operations.
[[Image:Trident II missile image.jpg|thumb|right|One of the [[Royal Navy]]'s Nuclear Submarines launches a [[Trident II]] Nuclear Missile.]]
[[Image:Trident II missile image.jpg|thumb|right|One of the [[Royal Navy]]'s Nuclear Submarines launches a [[Trident II]] Nuclear Missile.]]
The [[British Army]] had a reported strength of 102,440 in 2005 <ref>"[http://www.mod.uk/NR/rdonlyres/6FBA7459-7407-4B85-AA47-7063F1F22461/0/modara_0405_s1_resources.pdf Annual Reports and Accounts 2004-05]", Ministry of Defence. Retrieved 14 May 2006. {{PDFlink}}</ref> and the [[Royal Air Force]] a strength of 49,210. The 36,320-member [[Royal Navy]] operates the UK,s nuclear deterrent, which consists of four [[Trident missile]]-armed submarines, while the [[Royal Marines]] are the Royal Navy's Light Infantry units for amphibious operations and for specialist reinforcement forces in and beyond the [[NATO]] area. This puts total active duty military troops in the 190,000 range, currently deployed in over 80 countries.  
The [[British Army]] had a reported strength of 102,440 in 2005<ref>"[http://www.mod.uk/NR/rdonlyres/6FBA7459-7407-4B85-AA47-7063F1F22461/0/modara_0405_s1_resources.pdf Annual Reports and Accounts 2004-05]", Ministry of Defence. Retrieved 14 May 2006. {{PDFlink}}</ref> and the [[Royal Air Force]] a strength of 49,210. The 36,320-member [[Royal Navy]] operates the UK's nuclear deterrent, which consists of four Trident missile-armed submarines, while the [[Royal Marines]] are the Royal Navy's Light Infantry units for amphibious operations and for specialist reinforcement forces in and beyond the [[NATO]] area. This puts total active duty military troops in the 190,000 range, currently deployed in over eighty countries.


There are also reserve forces supporting the regular military. These include an army reserve, the [[Territorial Army]] (TA); the Royal Naval Reserve (RNR), [[Royal Marines Reserve]] (RMR) and the [[Royal Auxiliary Air Force]] (RAuxAF).
There are also reserve forces supporting the regular military. These include an army reserve, the [[Territorial Army]] (TA); the Royal Naval Reserve (RNR), [[Royal Marines Reserve]] (RMR) and the [[Royal Auxiliary Air Force]] (RAuxAF). About 9% of the regular armed forces are comprised of women, a figure that is higher for the reserve forces.
About 9% of the regular armed forces are comprised of women, a figure that is higher for the reserve forces.


The [[United Kingdom Special Forces]], principally the [[Special Air Service]] (SAS) and Special Boat Service (SBS), but including others, provide troops trained for quick, mobile, military responses in Counter-Terrorism, land, maritime and amphibious operations; often where secrecy or covert operations are required. The Royal Navy is the second largest navy in the Western World in terms of gross tonnage. Despite the United Kingdom's wide-ranging capabilities, recent pragmatic defence policy has a stated assumption that "the most demanding operations" would be undertaken as part of a coalition. <ref>Office for National Statistics "UK 2005: The Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" p. 89 </ref> Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq ''Granby'', no-fly zones, ''Desert Fox'', and ''Telic'') may all be taken as precedent; indeed the last war in which the British military fought alone was the [[Falklands War]] of 1982, with full-scale combat operations lasting almost three months.
The [[United Kingdom Special Forces]], principally the [[Special Air Service]] (SAS) and Special Boat Service (SBS), but including others, provide troops trained for quick, mobile, military responses in Counter-Terrorism, land, maritime and amphibious operations; often where secrecy or covert operations are required. The Royal Navy is the second largest navy in the Western World in terms of gross tonnage. Despite the United Kingdom's wide-ranging capabilities, recent pragmatic defence policy has a stated assumption that "the most demanding operations" would be undertaken as part of a coalition.<ref>Office for National Statistics "UK 2005: The Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" p. 89 </ref> Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq ''Granby'', no-fly zones, ''Desert Fox'', and ''Telic'') may all be taken as precedent; indeed the last war in which the British military fought alone was the [[Falklands War]] of 1982, with full-scale combat operations lasting almost three months.


==Culture==
==Culture==
===Education and science===
===Education and science===
The UK has some of the world's leading universities <ref>"[http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2005/ARWU2005_Top100.htm Top 500 World Universities (1-100)]", Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 2005. Retrieved 15 May 2006</ref>, including the [[University of Oxford]] and the [[University of Cambridge]]. It has produced many great scholars, scientists and engineers including [[Isaac Newton]], [[Adam Smith]], The Lord [[Kelvin]], [[Humphry Davy]], [[Joseph John Thomson]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[Charles Darwin]], [[Alexander Fleming]], [[Francis Crick]], [[Joseph William Bazalgette]] and [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]; the nation is credited with numerous inventions including the steam [[locomotive]], [[vaccination]], [[television]], the modern [[railway]], the [[lawn mower]], [[electric lighting]], the [[electric motor]], the [[screw propeller]], the [[internal combustion engine]], the [[jet engine]], the modern [[bicycle]], the third mechanical and electronic [[computer]], along with the later development of the [[World Wide Web#Origins|World Wide Web]].
The UK has some of the world's leading universities,<ref>"[http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2005/ARWU2005_Top100.htm Top 500 World Universities (1-100)]", Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 2005. Retrieved 15 May 2006</ref> including the [[University of Oxford]] and the [[University of Cambridge]]. It has produced many great scholars, scientists and engineers including [[Isaac Newton]], [[Adam Smith]], The Lord [[Kelvin]], [[Humphry Davy]], [[Joseph John Thomson]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[Charles Darwin]], [[Alexander Fleming]], [[Francis Crick]], [[Joseph William Bazalgette]] and [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]; the nation is credited with numerous inventions including the steam [[locomotive]], [[vaccination]], [[television]], the modern [[railway]], the [[lawn mower]], [[electric lighting]], the [[electric motor]], the [[screw propeller]], the [[internal combustion engine]], the [[jet engine]], the modern [[bicycle]], the [[ejector seat]], the third mechanical and electronic [[computer]], along with the later development of the [[World Wide Web#Origins|World Wide Web]].


In 2006, it was reported that the UK was the most productive source of research after the USA, producing 9% of the world's scientific research papers and attracting 12% of all citations.<ref>"[http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/research/story/0,,1736095,00.html Britain second in world research rankings]", ''Guardian'', 21 March 2006, retrieved 14 May 2006.</ref>
In 2006, it was reported that the UK was the most productive source of research after the USA, producing 9% of the world's scientific research papers and attracting 12% of all citations.<ref>"[http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/research/story/0,,1736095,00.html Britain second in world research rankings]", ''Guardian'', 21 March 2006, retrieved 14 May 2006.</ref>


=== Literature ===
=== Literature ===
The plays of [[William Shakespeare]] crowd the stage of English letters. Other major writers include [[Daniel Defoe]], [[Sir Walter Scott]], [[Jane Austen]], [[Charles Dickens]], the [[Brontë|Brontë sisters]], [[Thomas Hardy]], [[Joseph Conrad]], Sir [[Arthur Conan Doyle]], [[Virginia Woolf]], [[D. H. Lawrence]], [[George Orwell]] and [[Graham Greene]] Contemporary British writers include [[Salman Rushdie]] and [[J. K. Rowling]].
The plays of [[William Shakespeare]] crowd the stage of English letters. Other major writers include [[Daniel Defoe]], [[Sir Walter Scott]], [[Jane Austen]], [[Charles Dickens]], the [[Brontë|Brontë sisters]], [[Thomas Hardy]], [[Joseph Conrad]], Sir [[Arthur Conan Doyle]], [[Virginia Woolf]], [[D. H. Lawrence]], George Orwell and [[Graham Greene]] Contemporary British writers include [[Salman Rushdie]] and [[J. K. Rowling]].


Important playwrights include [[Christopher Marlowe]], [[Ben Jonson]] and, more recently [[Alan Ayckbourn]], [[Harold Pinter]] and [[Tom Stoppard]]. Important poets include [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], Shakespeare, [[John Milton]], [[William Blake]], [[Robert Burns]], [[William Wordsworth]], [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]], [[John Keats]], [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson|Lord Tennyson]], [[R. S. Thomas]], [[Wilfred Owen]], [[John Betjeman]], [[W. H. Auden]], [[Dylan Thomas]] and [[Ted Hughes]].
Important playwrights include [[Christopher Marlowe]], [[Ben Jonson]] and, more recently [[Alan Ayckbourn]], [[Harold Pinter]] and [[Tom Stoppard]]. Important poets include [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], Shakespeare, [[John Milton]], [[William Blake]], [[Robert Burns]], [[William Wordsworth]], [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]], [[John Keats]], [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson|Lord Tennyson]], [[R. S. Thomas]], [[Wilfred Owen]], [[John Betjeman]], [[W. H. Auden]], [[Dylan Thomas]] and [[Ted Hughes]].
Line 260: Line 135:


=== Music ===
=== Music ===
George Frideric Handel, especially with his English oratorios (notably "Messiah"), is the most performed British composer. Others include [[Henry Purcell]], [[Edward Elgar]], [[Arthur Sullivan]] (most famous for working with librettist [[W. S. Gilbert]]), [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]], and [[Benjamin Britten]].
George Frideric Handel, especially with his English oratorios (notably "Messiah"), is the most performed British composer (he was naturalized by Act of Parliament in 1727). Others include [[Henry Purcell]], [[Edward Elgar]], [[Arthur Sullivan]] (most famous for working with librettist [[W. S. Gilbert]] as "[[Gilbert and Sullivan]]"), [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]], and [[Benjamin Britten]].


Britain was, with the USA, one of the two main contributors in the development of [[rock and roll]], and the UK has provided some of the world's most famous rock bands including [[The Beatles]], [[Led Zeppelin]], [[Pink Floyd]] and [[The Rolling Stones]]. The UK was at the forefront of [[punk rock]] with bands like [[The Sex Pistols]] and [[The Clash]], music in the 1970s as well as the subsequent rebirth of [[Heavy metal (music)|heavy metal]]. The late-1970s and 1980s saw the rise of [[New Wave music|New Wave]]. The so-called 'Second British Invasion' into the US popular music scene took place from 1982 to 1984 when UK bands flooded the US Billboard charts. In the mid to late-1990s, the [[Britpop]] phenomenon saw bands such as [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]] and [[Blur]] attain considerable national and international success. The 1990s also saw the rise of major Welsh bands such as [[The Stereophonics]] and [[Manic Street Preachers]]. The UK is also at the forefront of [[electronica]], with British artists such as [[The Prodigy]] and [[The Chemical Brothers]] helping this mainly underground genre to cross over into the mainstream (having originated in the early-90's with techno bands such as [[Orbital (techno)|Orbital]]). Also British pop producers [[Stock Aitken Waterman]] - dominated the charts in the late-80's and early-90's with their instantly recognisable brand of pop from acts including today's pop superstar, [[Kylie Minogue]]. The 1990s charts were also dominated by the [[boy band]] phenomenon, with groups such as [[Take That]] thriving amongst countless others. Girl groups such as the [[Spice Girls ]] also found considerable success. From 1997 onwards, so-called 'soft rock' bands have dominated the serious popular music scene including [[Coldplay]], although after 2003 a high number of 'indie rock' bands emerged and have found considerable success.
The UK was, with the USA, one of the two main contributors in the development of [[rock and roll]], and the UK has provided some of the world's most famous rock bands including [[the Beatles]], [[Led Zeppelin]], [[Pink Floyd]] and [[the Rolling Stones]]. The UK was at the forefront of [[punk rock]] with bands like [[the Sex Pistols]] and [[the Clash]], music in the 1970s as well as the subsequent rebirth of [[Heavy metal (music)|heavy metal]]. The late-1970s and 1980s saw the rise of [[New Wave music|New Wave]]. The so-called 'Second British Invasion' into the US popular music scene took place from 1982 to 1984 when UK bands flooded the US Billboard charts. In the mid to late-1990s, the [[Britpop]] phenomenon saw bands such as [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]] and [[Blur]] attain considerable national and international success. The 1990s also saw the rise of major Welsh bands such as [[the Stereophonics]] and [[Manic Street Preachers]]. The UK is also at the forefront of [[electronica]], with British artists such as [[the Prodigy]] and [[the Chemical Brothers]] helping this mainly underground genre to cross over into the mainstream (having originated in the early-90's with techno bands such as [[Orbital (techno)|Orbital]]). Also British pop producers [[Stock Aitken Waterman]] - dominated the charts in the late-80's and early-90's with their instantly recognisable brand of pop. The 1990s charts were also dominated by the [[boy band]] phenomenon, with groups such as [[Take That]] thriving amongst countless others. Girl groups such as the [[Spice Girls ]] also found considerable success. From 1997 onwards, so-called 'soft rock' bands have dominated the serious popular music scene including [[Coldplay]], although after 2003 a high number of 'indie rock' bands emerged and have found considerable success.


=== Media ===
=== Media ===
The UK has a large and diverse media, and the prominence of the English language gives it an international dimension.  
The UK has a large and diverse media, and the prominence of the English language gives it an international dimension.


The [[BBC]] is the UK's publicly-funded [[radio]] and [[television]] broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest broadcaster in the world. Funded by the compulsory [[television licence]], the BBC operates several [[BBC Television|television]] channels and [[BBC Radio|radio]] stations both in the UK and abroad. The [[BBC World Service]] radio channel is broadcast in 33 languages around the world. [[BBC News]] is also broadcast around the world. The main, free-to-air television channels in the UK are [[BBC1]], [[BBC2]], [[ITV]]1 (STV in scotland), [[Channel 4]] and [[Five (TV)|Five]]. The main satellite broadcaster is [[Sky Digital (UK)|British Sky Broadcasting]], the vast majority of digital [[Cable television|cable]] services are provided by [[NTL|NTL:Telewest]] (created by the merger of NTL and Telewest in March 2006), and [[free-to-air]] digital terrestrial television by [[Freeview]].  
The [[BBC]] is the UK's publicly-funded [[radio]] and [[television]] broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest broadcaster in the world. Funded by the compulsory [[television licence]], the BBC operates several [[BBC Television|television]] channels and [[BBC Radio|radio]] stations both in the UK and abroad. The [[BBC World Service]] radio channel is broadcast in 33 languages around the world. [[BBC News]] is also broadcast around the world. The main, free-to-air television channels in the UK are [[BBC1]], [[BBC2]], [[ITV]]1 (STV in Scotland), [[Channel 4]] and [[Five (TV)|Five]]. The main satellite broadcaster is [[Sky Digital (UK)|British Sky Broadcasting]], and digital [[Cable television|cable]] services are provided by Virgin Media (created by the merger of NTL and Telewest ), and [[free-to-air]] digital terrestrial television by [[Freeview]].


Radio in the UK is dominated by [[BBC Radio]], which operates 10 national and 40 regional radio stations. The most popular radio station, by number of listeners, is [[BBC Radio 2]] which specialises in popular music aimed at the '[[middle aged]]' age bracket; it is closely followed by [[BBC Radio 1]], aimed at the 15-24 aged bracket and the previous market leader. Commercial radio tends to be regionalised, although [[Virgin Radio]], [[Classic FM (UK)|Classic FM]] and [[talkSPORT]] are broadcast nationally. Popular regional stations include [[Capital Radio]] in London; [[Heart FM|Heart]] in London and Midlands; [[Galaxy FM|Galaxy]] in Birmingham and the north of England; [[Magic Radio|Magic]] in London and the north of England; and [[Radio Clyde]] in [[Glasgow]].
Radio in the UK is dominated by [[BBC Radio]], which operates ten national and forty regional radio stations. The most popular radio station, by number of listeners, is [[BBC Radio 2]] which specialises in popular music aimed at the '[[middle aged]]' age bracket; it is closely followed by [[BBC Radio 1]], aimed at the 15-24 aged bracket and the previous market leader. Commercial radio tends to be regionalized, although [[Virgin Radio]], [[Classic FM (UK)|Classic FM]] and [[talkSPORT]] are broadcast nationally. Popular regional stations include [[Capital Radio]] in London; [[Heart FM|Heart]] in London and Midlands; [[Galaxy FM|Galaxy]] in Birmingham and the north of England; [[Magic Radio|Magic]] in London and the north of England; and [[Radio Clyde]] in [[Glasgow]].


Traditionally, British newspapers could be split into "quality", serious-minded newspapers (usually referred to as ''[[broadsheets]]'' because of their large size) and ''[[tabloid]]'', popular newspapers. However, because of considerations of convenience of reading, many traditional broadsheets have both switched to a '[[Compact (newspaper)|compact]]'-sized format, traditionally used by [[tabloid]]s. [[The Sun (newspaper)|''The Sun'']] has the highest circulation of any daily newspaper in the UK, with approximately a quarter of the market; its sister paper, ''[[The News of The World]]'' similarly leads the Sunday newspaper market <ref> [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/section/0,,1782,00.html ABC Newspaper Circulation Figures] ''[[The Times]]'', May 12 2006, accessed May 16 2006.</ref>, and traditionally focuses on celebrity-led stories. The ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', a [[Right-wing politics|right-of-centre]] paper, is the highest selling of the ''qualities'' (former broadsheets), having overtaken ''[[The Times]]'' in circulation figures.
Traditionally, British newspapers could be split into "quality", serious-minded newspapers (usually referred to as ''[[broadsheets]]'' because of their large size) and ''[[tabloid]]'', popular newspapers. However, because of considerations of convenience of reading, many traditional broadsheets have both switched to a '[[Compact (newspaper)|compact]]'-sized format, traditionally used by [[tabloid]]s. [[The Sun (newspaper)|''The Sun'']] has the highest circulation of any daily newspaper in the UK, with approximately a quarter of the market; its sister paper, ''[[The News of The World]]'' similarly leads the Sunday newspaper market,<ref> [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/section/0,,1782,00.html ABC Newspaper Circulation Figures] ''[[The Times]]'', May 12 2006, accessed May 16 2006.</ref> and traditionally focuses on celebrity-led stories. ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', a [[Right-wing politics|right-of-centre]] paper, is the highest selling of the ''qualities'' (former broadsheets), having overtaken ''[[The Times]]'' in circulation figures.<ref>{{cite web
<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.abc.org.uk/  
| url = http://www.abc.org.uk/  
| title = Audit Bureau of Circulation ''Interactive Analysis National Newspaper Selection - Average Net Circulation (UK) 03-Jul-2006 to 30-Jul-2006''
| title = Audit Bureau of Circulation ''Interactive Analysis National Newspaper Selection - Average Net Circulation (UK) 03-Jul-2006 to 30-Jul-2006''
| accessdate = 2006-09-04
| accessdate = 2006-09-04
}}  Lists ''Daily Telegraph'' as 844,929 and ''The Times'' as 620,456.</ref>
}}  Lists ''Daily Telegraph'' as 844,929 and ''The Times'' as 620,456.</ref> ''[[The Guardian]]'' is a more [[Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom|liberal]] or left-wing former broadsheet. The ''[[Financial Times]]'' is the main business paper, printed on distinctive salmon-pink broadsheet paper.
''[[The Guardian]]'' is a more [[Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom|liberal]] or left-wing former broadsheet. The ''[[Financial Times]]'' is the main business paper, printed on distinctive salmon-pink broadsheet paper.


===Sport===
===Sport===
{{main|Sport in the United Kingdom}}
A number of major sports originated in the United Kingdom including [[association football]] and [[cricket]], which are the world's most popular team sports in terms of both spectators and participants. Other sports which originated in Britain are [[golf]] and rugby football ([[rugby union]] and [[rugby league]]), while sports like [[boxing]], [[horse racing]], [[motor racing]], and [[tennis]] owe their modern popularity to British development and promotion. London has hosted the [[Olympic Games]] three times — in 1908, 1948, and 2012.
A number of major [[sport]]s originated in the United Kingdom, including [[association football]] (football, or soccer), [[rugby football]] ([[rugby union]] and [[rugby league]]), [[golf]], [[cricket]], [[tennis]] and [[boxing]].
 
The most popular sport in the UK is [[Football (soccer)|association football]] (known as soccer in North America), commonly referred to as just "football". The UK does not compete as a nation in any major football tournament. Instead, the home nations compete individually as [[England national football team|England]], [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]], [[Wales national football team|Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland national football team|Northern Ireland]]. It is because of this unique four-team arrangement that the UK currently does not compete in football events at the [[Olympic Games]]. However, a united team will probably take part in the [[2012 Summer Olympic Games]], which are to be hosted in London. The English and Northern Irish football associations have confirmed participation in this team while the [[Scottish FA]] and the [[Welsh FA]] have declined to participate. It is in this way that rugby football differs internationally to association football, as the England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland (including Northern Ireland) teams do come together to form the [[British and Irish Lions]], though they do all compete separately internationally for the most part.


The UK football clubs compete in [[Football in the United Kingdom|national leagues and competitions]] and some go on to compete in European competitions. British teams are generally successful in European Competitions and several have become European Cup/UEFA Champions League winners: [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] (five times), [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] (twice), [[Nottingham Forest F.C.|Nottingham Forest]] (twice), [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]] and [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]].
====Football====
The most popular sport in the country is association football, commonly known just as "football". The UK never competes as a nation in football tournaments. Instead, the home nations compete individually as [[England national football team|England]], [[Northern Ireland national football team|Northern Ireland]], [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]], and [[Wales national football team|Wales]]. It is because of this unique four-team arrangement that the British Olympic squad does not include a football team.  


By far the UK's most successful sport, if judged by the number of wins in the international arena, is [[rowing]], which holds a strong presence amongst other rowing nations such as [[Australia]], [[Canada]] and [[Germany]]. It is widely considered that the UK's most successful sportsperson is [[Steven Redgrave]] who won five gold and one bronze medals at five consecutive [[Olympic Games]] as well as numerous wins at the [[World Rowing Championships]] and [[Henley Royal Regatta]].
Domestically, British football clubs compete in [[Football in the United Kingdom|national leagues and competitions]] from which the top teams may qualify to compete in European competitions. English clubs are generally successful in Europe and several have won continental titles. The most prestigious title is the European Cup, now called the UEFA Champions League. [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]] were the first British winners of the European Cup in 1967, but that remains the only one won by a Scottish club. [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] with six European Cup wins to 2024 are the most successful British club; [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] were the first English winners in 1968 and have three titles.


Both forms of rugby are national sports. [[Rugby league]] originates from and is generally played in the North of England, whilst [[Rugby Union]] is played predominantly in [[Wales]], [[Northern Ireland]] and [[Southern England]]. Having supposedly originated from the actions of [[William Webb Ellis]] at the town of [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]], it is considered the national sport of Wales. In [[rugby league]] the UK plays as one nation &ndash; [[Great Britain national rugby league team|Great Britain]] &ndash; though in union it is represented by four nations: England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland (which consists of players from the [[Republic of Ireland]] and Northern Ireland). [[England national rugby union team|England]] is the current holder of the [[Rugby World Cup]]. Every four years the [[British and Irish Lions]] tour either Australia, New Zealand or South Africa.
====Cricket====
Football superseded cricket as the country's national sport around the end of the 19th century. Cricket is still the most popular summer sport with clubs in almost every town and village, especially throughout England. The highest level of domestic competition is the [[County Cricket Championship]], which involves eighteen county clubs as far afield as [[Durham (cricket)|Durham]], [[Kent (cricket)|Kent]], and [[Somerset (cricket)|Somerset]]. Seventeen of the [[First-class cricket|first-class counties]] are in England; the exception is [[Glamorgan (cricket)|Glamorgan]] in South Wales. The most successful county teams tend to be those with international stadiums such as [[Yorkshire (cricket)|Yorkshire]], [[Lancashire (cricket)|Lancashire]], [[Nottinghamshire (cricket)|Nottinghamshire]], [[Surrey (cricket)|Surrey]], and [[Middlesex (cricket)|Middlesex]] whose home ground is the famous [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]], owned by [[Marylebone Cricket Club]] (MCC) in north London.


The [[Wimbledon Championships]] are international [[tennis]] events held in [[Wimbledon, London|Wimbledon]] in south London every summer and are seen as the most prestigious of the tennis calendar.
Internationally, the [[England (cricket)|England]] team is an amalgam of England and Wales, reflecting the structure of the County Championship. England is a full member of the [[International Cricket Council]] (ICC) and so plays [[Test cricket]]. Northern Ireland and the [[Republic of Ireland]] play cricket together and the combined [[Ireland (cricket)|Ireland]] team is also a full ICC member. [[Scotland (cricket)|Scotland]] has been independent in cricket since 1992 and is an associate member of the ICC, meaning they can play in [[limited over international]] matches but not Test matches.


[[Thoroughbred racing]] is also very popular in England. It originated under [[Charles II of England]] as the "Sport of Kings" and is a royal pastime to this day. World-famous horse races include the [[Grand National]] and the [[Epsom Derby]].
====Other sports====
[[Horse racing]] has been very popular in England ever since the time of [[Charles II]] when it became known as the "Sport of Kings". It remains a royal pastime to this day and [[Elizabeth II]] was an acknowleged expert. World-famous races include the [[Grand National]] and the [[Epsom Derby]].


Golf is one of the most popular participation sports played in the UK, and [[St Andrews]] in Scotland is the sport's home course. Cricket is also popular, though much more in England than in other parts of the UK; all four constituent nations compete at the One-Day International level &ndash; Scotland independently, Wales as part of the English team, and Northern Ireland as part of All-Ireland.
The ancient sport of boxing became popular in 18th century England in the form of bareknuckle prizefighting for large purses. A set of rules was drafted in 1743 by the champion fighter Jack Broughton and these formed the basis of the London Prize Ring Rules in 1838. Modern boxing is based on the Queensberry Rules which were written by John Graham Chambers, a Welshman, in 1865. Heavyweight boxing is very popular in Britain and the country has produced several famous fighters including Bob Fitzsimmons, Tommy Farr, Henry Cooper, Lennox Lewis, and Tyson Fury.  


[[Shinty|Shinty or camanachd]] (a sport derived from the same root as the [[Ireland|Irish]] [[hurling]] and similar to [[bandy]]) is popular in the [[Scottish Highlands]], sometimes attracting crowds numbering thousands in the most sparsely populated region of the UK.
Golf, which originated in Scotland, remains one of the UK's most popular participation sports. The Royal and Ancient Golf Club, which organises the Open Championship every July, is based in St Andrews, Fife. The Open is one of golf's four Major Tournaments. In [[tennis]], the [[Wimbledon Championships]] are held in June each year and this is one of the four Grand Slam tournaments.


The country is closely associated with [[motorsport]]. Many teams and drivers in [[Formula One]] and the [[World Rally Championship]] are based in the UK. The country also hosts legs of the F1 and World Rallying Championship calendars and has its own [[Touring Car Racing]] championship, the [[BTCC]].
[[Shinty|Shinty or camanachd]] (a sport derived from the same root as the Irish [[hurling]] and similar to [[bandy]]) is popular in the Scottish Highlands, sometimes attracting crowds numbering thousands in the most sparsely populated region of the UK.


British [[Formula One World Championship|Formula One World Champions]] include [[Mike Hawthorn]], [[Graham Hill]] (twice), [[Jim Clark]] (twice), [[John Surtees]] (who was also successful on motorcycles), [[Jackie Stewart]] (three times), [[James Hunt]], [[Nigel Mansell]], and Graham Hill's son, [[Damon Hill]]. British drivers have not been as successful in the World Rally Championship, with only [[Colin McRae]] and the late [[Richard Burns]] winning the title.
The country is closely associated with [[motor racing|motorsport]] of all kinds. Many teams and drivers in [[Formula One]] and other events are based in Britain and the British Grand Prix, held every summer at the Silverstone race track in [[Northamptonshire]], is an event in the Formula One World Championship. British world champions in Formula One include Jim Clark, Jackie Stewart and Lewis Hamilton.


In 2012, the Summer Olympic Games will be hosted in Stratford and the Lower Lea Valley in east [[London]]. This will be third time that London has hosted the games - previously doing so in 1908 and 1948. The official announcement of the success of London's bid was made on the 6th of July, 2005, with London narrowly beating out [[Paris]]. In 2008, London mayor [[Boris Johnson]] received the Olympic Flag from the Mayor of Beijing, and the flag is now flying outside [[City Hall, London]].
Legend has it that a schoolboy called William Webb Ellis invented rugby football when he picked up the ball during a football match and ran with it in his hands into his opponents' goal. The story is apocryphal but the sport does get its name from the school in [[Rugby, Warwickshire]], where Webb was a pupil in the 1820s (the same place is the setting for ''[[Tom Brown's Schooldays]]''). Rugby league originated in the North of England in 1895, following a split with union on the issue of professionalism. League is still a predominately northern sport, whereas union is very popular in Wales and has many clubs throughout the South of England. Union is considered the national sport of Wales. League has a single international team called Great Britain; union has England, Scotland, and Wales. As in cricket, Northern Ireland is part of a combined Ireland team. Union also has the British and Irish Lions team for summer tours of Australia, New Zealand or South Africa.


==Symbols==
==Symbols==
* The '''flag''' of the UK is the Union Flag (commonly known as the "Union Jack"), which is a superimposition of the flags of England (St George's Cross) and Scotland (Saint Andrew's Cross); the Saint Patrick's cross, representing Ireland, was added in 1801.


* The '''flag''' of the UK is the Union Flag (commonly known as the "Union Jack"), which is a superimposition of the flags of England (St George's Cross) and Scotland (Saint Andrew's Cross); the Saint Patrick's cross, representing Ireland, was added in 1801.
* The '''national anthem''' is ''God Save the King'', or ''God Save the Queen'', as appropriate.<ref> It is sometimes asserted by those used to a legislative tradition that ''God Save the King/Queen'' is not the actual national anthem of the UK, (or sometimes that it is the ''de facto'' national anthem) because no law has ever been passed to say so. In Britain, however, codification of the law is usually unnecessary; custom, practice and proclamation are sufficient to establish it as the official national anthem.</ref>
 
* The '''national anthem''' is ''God Save the Queen''.<ref> It is sometimes asserted by those used to a legislative tradition that ''God Save the Queen'' is not the actual national anthem of the UK, (or sometimes that it is the ''de facto'' national anthem) because no law has ever been passed to say so. In the UK however such laws are unnecessary; custom, practice and proclamation are sufficient to establish it as the official national anthem.</ref>


* [[Britannia]] is a personification of the UK, originating from the Roman occupation of southern and central Great Britain<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.24carat.co.uk/britanniaframe.html |title=Britannia on British Coins |publisher=Chard |accessdate=2006-06-25}}</ref>. Britannia is symbolised as a young woman with brown or golden hair, wearing a Corinthian helmet and white robes. She holds Poseidon's three-pronged trident and a shield, bearing the Union Flag. Sometimes she is depicted as riding the back of a lion. In modern usage, Britannia is often associated with maritime dominance, as in the patriotic song ''[[Rule Britannia]]''.
* [[Britannia]] is a personification of Great Britain, originating from the Roman occupation of the southern and central parts of the island, which they called Britannia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.24carat.co.uk/britanniaframe.html |title=Britannia on British Coins |publisher=Chard |accessdate=2006-06-25}}</ref> Britannia is symbolised as a young woman with brown or golden hair, wearing a Corinthian helmet and white robes. She holds Poseidon's three-pronged trident and a shield, bearing the Union Flag. Sometimes she is depicted as riding the back of a lion. In modern usage, Britannia is often associated with maritime dominance, as in the patriotic song ''[[Rule Britannia]]''.


* The lion has also been used as a symbol of the UK; one is depicted behind Britannia on the 50 pence piece and one is shown crowned on the back of the 10 pence piece, it is also used as a symbol on the non-ceremonial flag of the [[British Army]]. Lions have been used as heraldic devices many times, including in the royal arms of both the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Kingdom of Gwynedd in Wales. The lion is featured on the emblem of the England national football team, giving rise to the popular football anthem ''Three Lions''.
* The [[lion]] has also been used as a symbol of the UK; one is depicted behind Britannia on the 50 pence piece and one is shown crowned on the back of the 10 pence piece, it is also used as a symbol on the non-ceremonial flag of the [[British Army]]. Lions have been used as heraldic devices many times, including in the royal arms of the kingdoms of England, Scotland, Kingdom of Gwynedd in Wales and of Northern Ireland. The lion is featured on the emblem of the England national football team, and the England Women's team is known as the Lionesses.


* The bulldog is sometimes used as a symbol of the Great Britain.
* The bulldog, or "British Bulldog", is sometimes used as a symbol of the United Kingdom.


*Britain (especially England) is also personified as the character [[John Bull]].
* Britain (especially England) is also personified as the character [[John Bull]].


==Miscellaneous data==  
==Miscellaneous data==  
Line 328: Line 200:
* [[Voltage]]: 230V (+10% / -6%), 50 Hz; Power connector: 3 rectangle pins
* [[Voltage]]: 230V (+10% / -6%), 50 Hz; Power connector: 3 rectangle pins


==Also See==
==Footnotes==
{{:United Kingdom/Catalogs}}
{{reflist|2}}


==References==
[[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]]
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references />
</div>

Latest revision as of 07:00, 3 November 2024

This article is developing and not approved.
Main Article
Discussion
Related Articles  [?]
Bibliography  [?]
External Links  [?]
Citable Version  [?]
Catalogs [?]
Addendum [?]
 
This editable Main Article is under development and subject to a disclaimer.
The United Kingdom is shown in orange, and for context, the official countries of the European Union are shown in dark blue. Some overseas territories that are included in the European Union are outside the boundaries of the map.

The United Kingdom is a political union of the countries of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Its formal title is "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". It is often referred to as "Britain", including by the government. Its principal language is English, but the Welsh language is also officially recognised. Other indigenous languages include Scots, Scottish Gaelic and British Sign Language. Its citizens are called Britons (or, informally, "Brits"), and their nationality is referred to as "British". It is located off the north-western coast of Europe, and it is geographically and politically a part of the continent. It is a member of the British Commonwealth and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation and is a founder member of the United Nations with a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. In 2016, a majority of British voters opted to leave the European Union, and this was implemented in 2020.

History

The British people have acquired a genetic inheritance from immigrants including Celts, Romans, Saxons, Danes, Normans, and many others. An early cultural inheritance came from the Celts of central Europe and a further contribution came when missionaries established monasteries in the British Isles. Little cultural progress was made during the five centuries of Anglo-Saxon rule in England, however, and the technological knowledge that was lost when the Romans left was only slowly regained. Intellectual thought was dominated for several centuries by a religious establishment concerned mainly with the preservation of orthodoxy, and it was not until the Renaissance that inductive modes of reasoning became acceptable. The British constitutional inheritance has been the outcome of an intermittent progression from an unruly conglomeration of uncoordinated kingships into an orderly democratic nation. A transition from autocracy to constitutional monarchy happened by the transfer of power to deliberative assemblies in a succession of discrete steps that included the Magna Carta of 1215, the Bill of Rights of 1688, the Reform Act of 1867, and the Representation of the People Act of 1928. The dissolution of the rigid hierarchical structure of rights and obligations of the feudal system happened at an earlier stage in Britain than in other European countries and the resulting increase in labour mobility made possible the earlier development of the Industrial Revolution -and gave it a decisive, although temporary, economic advantage. As a result it was for a time, the world's richest and most powerful country. It acquired - and then lost - responsibility for managing the world's financial system, and for ruling an Empire of almost a quarter of the world's population, covering a larger area than any other empire in history. In the course of the 20th century, it suffered major losses of its economic resources in two world wars and it gave independence to nearly all the former members its empire, and devolved a degree of legislative independence to Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland. It joined the European Union but did not adopt its common currency. It joined with the United States of America in the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, and supported it in wars in Korea, Afghanistan and Iraq, but not Vietnam.

Government and politics

The Constitution

Parliamentary sovereignty is the ruling principle of the constitution[1] of the United Kingdom. Parliament is the country's supreme legal authority, and it can create or end any law. It has from time to time passed laws that limit the application of its sovereignty, but it is not bound by those laws. nor by any other of its past decisions [2].

The UK parliament is bicameral, consisting of a wholly-elected House of Commons and a mainly-appointed House of Lords, of which the House of Commons is its primary legislative assembly, and the functions of the House of Lords are mainly deliberative. Once elected, the House of Commons serves for a fixed term of five years unless the government loses a vote of no confidence, and unless a new government does not receive a vote of confidence within a fortnight, or two thirds of its members vote for its dissolution[3].

The political head of the UK government is its Prime Minister who is a member of one of the Houses of Parliament, appointed by the Monarch on the presumption that he or she would able to command the support of a majority of the members of the House of Commons. (The appointee is expected to submit his or her resignation if he or she is unable to win the of confidence of the House of Commons). It is nowadays understood that the Prime Minister must be in the House of Commons. (Apart from a very short period in 1963,[4] this has always been the case since 1902.) The person chosen to be Prime Minister is normally the elected leader of one of the country's political parties.

The British monarch is the country's Head of State. The functions of the monarchy are mainly ceremonial, but the Sovereign, as its embodiment, has the right to advise the Prime Minister in private. The Sovereign has the personal power to resolve an otherwise intractable constitutional crisis but is bound, in all other circumstances, to give way to ministerial advice. In other respects, the royal prerogative, which includes the power to declare war, is effectively exercised by ministers. The ancient feudal functions of the monarchy continue to be reflected in constitutional and legal terminology and usage. For those purposes, the term "The Crown", refers to a legal fiction that makes the state a legal entity that can be a party to a legal transaction or a legal action[5].

The conduct of government

It is the Prime Minister's responsibility to select those members of the Houses of Parliament who are to become Ministers and serve as political managers of government departments, and to decide who among them are to serve in the top decision-making body known as "the Cabinet". With rare exceptions, a government's business is conducted in accordance with the "doctrine of collective responsibility"[6], under which ministers are bound to defend Cabinet decisions, whether or not they agree with them. The conduct of ministers is governed by a ministerial code[7] covering their personal conduct, the presentation of policy, and their relations with Parliament and the civil service. Ministers receive political advice from "special advisers", and impartial advice from permanent civil servants. Permanent civil servants are recruited by open competition under the supervision of an independent Commission[8], and their appointment does not change with changes of government; whereas special advisers are temporary civil servants who are appointed by ministers, and whose tenure ends when there is a change of government[9]. In 2010/11 there were 68 special advisors[10] within a total of about 440,000 civil servants. Legislation is normally initiated by government departments and piloted through the legislative process by the party Whips. Legislative proposals by a Government with a substantial majority in the House of Commons are usually enacted. Government Whips warn members who rebel against its motions that they are damaging their prospects of promotion.

Political parties

Nearly all MPs belong to political parties; often all do. Currently, 10 parties are represented in the Commons, of which the only two that have been in power alone recently are the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. The Liberal Democrats were in a coalition government from 2010 to 2015. Among the others, the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru campaign for the independence of Scotland and Wales respectively; the Democratic Unionist Party(DUP) represent unionist, and Sinn Féin and the Social Democratic an Labour Party represent nationalist interests in Northern Ireland, while the Alliance Party tries to bridge the divide. The Green Party is also represented in the Commons. Many other parties are represented in other elected positions, or were formerly represented in Parliament. Analysts have remarked upon the apparent lack of ideological differences among the three major national parties[11], an impression that is supported by a comparison of their 2010 election manifestoes[12].

The current administration

The 2019 United Kingdom general election resulted in a majority for the Conservative Party led by Boris Johnson. He was succeeded as Prime Minister by Liz Truss on 6th September 2022, and she in turn was succeeded by Rishi Sunak on 25th October.

Regional Structure

Devolution

Following devolution referendums in Scotland and Wales in 1997, and in both parts of Ireland in 1998, the United Kingdom Parliament transferred a range of powers to national parliaments or assemblies[13]. The arrangements are different in the three parts of the country, reflecting their history and administrative structures. The Scottish Government develops and implements policy on matters that include health, education, justice, rural affairs and transport[14], and is accountable to the Scottish Parliament[15]. The Welsh Assembly Government[16] has responsibilities which include health, education, economic development, culture, the environment and transport, and is accountable to the National Assembly for Wales[17]. The Northern Ireland Executive[18] is responsible for economic and social matters, agriculture and rural development, culture, arts, education, health, social services and public safety, and is accountable to the Northern Ireland Assembly[19]. The United Kingdom Parliament is still able to pass legislation for any part of the United Kingdom, though in practice it only deals with devolved matters with the agreement of the devolved governments.

Local Government

The United Kingdom is divided, for the purposes of government, into a set of further administrative subdivisions. In most of England there are two levels of local government: a county council and a district council. County councils cover large areas and provide public services that include schools, social services, and public transportation. District councils cover smaller areas and provide more local services, including council housing, gyms and leisure facilities, local planning, recycling and trash collection. In most large towns and cities, and in some small counties, there is only one level of local government responsible for all local services. In London, each borough is a unitary authority, but the Greater London Authority provides London-wide services including transport and police. In Scotland there is a unitary system with one level of local government. In Northern Ireland there are local councils, but most services are carried out by other organisations. In some parts of England and Wales there are also town and parish councils that are responsible for services like allotments, public toilets, parks and ponds, war memorials, and local halls and community centres. In Wales, they are called community councils. In Scotland there are community councils with fewer powers. There is no equivalent in Northern Ireland.

Law

The United Kingdom has three systems of law: one for England and Wales, one for Northern Ireland and one for Scotland. In England and Wales and Northern Ireland they are "common law systems", under which decisions are determined by precedent, except where precedent is overruled by legislation (as distinct from "civil law systems" under which decisions are determined exclusively by legislative enactment). Scotland has a "mixed jurisdiction system" which is a mixture of common law and civil law. Each system has a hierarchy of courts, and each permits appeal to a higher court against a decision of a lower court. In England and Wales, the court system includes the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice (for civil cases) and the Crown Court (for criminal cases). In Scotland, the principal courts are the Court of Session, for civil cases, and the High Court of Justiciary, for criminal cases, and the sheriff court is the Scottish equivalent of the English county court. The United Kingdom's highest court is the Supreme Court,[20] roughly speaking. The provisions of the European Communities Act 1972 require United Kingdom courts to apply European law, and to give it preference when it conflicts with previous parliamentary legislation[21]. The Human Rights Act 1998[22] embodies the provisions of the European Convention on Human Rights.

Geography

The United Kingdom comprises the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland, and numerous smaller islands in the surrounding seas. It is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean and its ancillary bodies of water, including the North Sea, the English Channel, the Celtic Sea, and the Irish Sea. On the island of Ireland, Northern Ireland has a land border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west. There are several islands which are not part of the United Kingdom, including the Isle of Man, Jersey, Guernsey and Alderney). They are all British Crown Dependencies, which means that they are effectively self-governing with their own legislature and tax systems: the UK remains responsible for foreign policy and in certain circumstances has legal authority superior to the parliaments.

Most of England consists of rolling lowland, divided east from west by mountains in the Northwest (Cumbrian Mountains of the Lake District) and north (the upland moors of the Pennines) and limestone hills of the Peak District by the Tees-Exe line. The lower limestone hills of the Isle of Purbeck, Cotswolds, Lincolnshire and chalk downs of the Southern England Chalk Formation. The main rivers and estuaries are the Thames, Severn and the Humber Estuary. The largest urban area is Greater London. Near Dover, the Channel Tunnel links the UK to France.[23] The highest mountain in England is Scafell Pike in the Lake District, at 978m (3,208 ft).

Scotland's geography is varied, with lowlands in the south and east and highlands in the north and west, including Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in the British Isles at 1,343m (4,406 ft). There are many long and deep-sea arms, firths, and lochs. Scotland has nearly 800 islands, mainly west and north of the mainland, notably the Hebrides, Orkney Islands and Shetland Islands. The capital city is Edinburgh, the centre of which is a World Heritage site. The largest city is Glasgow.[24] The UK has about 1,000 islands, with 700 in Scotland alone.[25]

Wales (Cymru in Welsh) is mostly mountainous, the highest peak being Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa) at 1,085m (3,560 ft) above sea level. North of the mainland is the island of Anglesey (Ynys Môn). The largest city, Cardiff (Caerdydd), has been the Welsh capital since 1955.[26] The greatest concentration of people live in the south, in the cities of Swansea and Newport, as well as Cardiff, and the South Wales Valleys. The largest town in North Wales is Wrexham.

Northern Ireland, making up the north-eastern part of Ireland, is mostly hilly. The capital is Belfast ('Béal Feirste' in Irish), with other major cities being Londonderry/Derry ('Doire' in Irish) and Armagh. The province includes one of the UK’s World Heritage sites, the Giant's Causeway, which consists of more than 40,000 hexagonal basalt columns up to 40 feet (12 m) high. Lough Neagh, the largest body of water in the British Isles (388 km² / 150 mi²), can be found in Northern Ireland.[27] The highest peak is Slieve Donard at 849m (2,786 ft) in the Mourne Mountains.

Climate

England has a temperate climate, with plentiful rainfall all year round. The seasons are quite variable in temperature, but temperatures rarely fall below −5°C (23°F) or rise above 30°C (86°F). The prevailing wind is from the south-west, bringing mild and wet weather regularly from the Atlantic Ocean. It is driest in the east and warmest in the south-east. Snowfall can occur in Winter and early Spring, though it is uncommon away from high ground. The highest temperature recorded in England is 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) on 10 August 2003 at Brogdale, near Faversham, in Kent. [1]. The lowest temperature recorded is −26.1 °C (−15.0 °F) on 10 January 1982 at Edgmond, near Newport, in Shropshire. [2]

Wales' climate is similar, with the highest temperature recorded at 35.2°C (95.4°F) in Hawarden Bridge, Flintshire on 2 August 1990, and the lowest temperature at -23.3°C (-10°F) in Rhayader, Radnorshire on 21 January 1940. [1]

The climate of Scotland is temperate and oceanic, and tends to be very changeable. It is warmed by the Gulf Stream from the Atlantic, and is much warmer than areas on similar latitudes, for example Oslo, Norway. However, temperatures are generally lower than in the rest of the UK, with the coldest ever UK temperature of -27.2°C (-16.96°F) recorded at Braemar in the Grampian Mountains, on 11 February 1895 and 10 January 1982 and also at Altnaharra, Highland, on 30 December 1995. Winter maximums average 6°C (42.8°F) in the lowlands, with summer maximums averaging 18°C (64.4°F). The highest temperature recorded was 32.9°C (91.22°F) at Greycrook, Scottish Borders on 9 August 2003.

Generally, western Scotland is warmer than the east because of the influence of the Atlantic ocean currents and the colder surface temperatures of the North Sea. Tiree, in the Inner Hebrides, is the sunniest place in Scotland: it had 300 days with sunshine in 1975. Rainfall varies widely across Scotland. The western highlands of Scotland are the wettest place, with annual rainfall exceeding 3,000 mm (120 inches),while much of lowland Scotland receives less than 800 mm (31 inches) annually. Heavy snowfall is not common in the lowlands, but becomes more common with altitude. Braemar has an average of 59 snow days per year, while coastal areas have an average of fewer than 10 days.

Northern Ireland has a temperate maritime climate, wetter in the west than the east, although cloud cover is persistent across the region. The weather is unpredictable at all times of the year, and the seasons are less pronounced than in interior Europe or the eastern seaboard of North America. Average daytime maximums in Belfast are 6.5°C (43.7°F) in January and 17.5°C (63.5°F) in July. The damp climate and extensive deforestation in the 16th and 17th centuries resulted in much of the region being covered in rich green grassland. The highest maximum temperature was set at 30.8°C (87.4°F) at Knockarevan, near Belleek, County Fermanagh on 30 June 1976 and at Belfast on 12 July 1983, whilst the lowest minimum temperature recorded at -17.5°C (0.5°F) in Magherally, near Banbridge, County Down on 1 January 1979. [16]

The UK, like the rest of Europe, has been in recent years, hit by many freak heatwaves during the summer. The heatwaves have been the reason for many deaths in the past years when temperatures easily soar past 30°C (86°F), nearing the 40°C (104°F) mark.

Cities

Due to differences between the administrative boundaries and metropolitan areas of cities, and because of merging of settlements into conurbations, there are many different statistics and debates on which cities are the UK's largest. The capitals of the UK's constituent countries are London (England), Edinburgh (Scotland), Cardiff (Wales) and Belfast (Northern Ireland). London is by far the UK's largest city,[28] whilst Birmingham is considered, population-wise, the 'second city'.

Demography

The UK population according to the 2011 census was 63,181,775.[29] In 2007 birth per woman were 1.84 (up from 1.74 in 2005); the net annual migration was 190,000 (up from 145,000 in 2005), and the life expectancy at birth for females was 86.2 years (up from 85.0).

Its overall population density is one of the highest in the world. About a quarter of the population lives in the south-east[30] and is predominantly urban and suburban, with an estimated 7,517,700 in the capital of London.[31] The United Kingdom's high literacy rate (99%)[32] is attributable to universal public education established by law for the primary level in 1870 (though in fact nearly all children of primary age were already attending school) and secondary level in 1900 (except in Scotland where it was introduced in 1696). Education is mandatory from ages four or five (dependent on birth date) to sixteen.

Population history

The lands now constituting the UK have been subject to many invasions and migrations, especially from Scandinavia and the continent of Europe, including Roman occupation for several centuries. The Romans, however, left a minimal long-term impact on the culture. The Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse cultural traditions were blended under the Normans after that French-speaking group invaded and conquered England in 1066.

Immigration

Immigration has come through interaction with continental Europe and ties forged by the British Empire. Continuous waves of immigration have brought people to the UK, with Europe, Africa and South-East Asia being the biggest areas from where people emigrate. The UK has amongst the highest immigration rates in Europe, along with Italy and Spain[33] In the Greater London area the 2011 census found only 45% of the population identifying themselves as "White British"[34] and only about 43% identifying as English. The latest wave of immigration began in May 2004 when the European Union was expanded. From May 2004 to June 2006, around 600,000 people from Central and Eastern Europe emigrated to the UK to work; this figure is for arrivals only and does not take account of people leaving, so net migration will be lower.[35] In 2004 net migration from EU states stood at 74,000.[36]

Language

English is understood and used everyday by the vast majority of British people. Its continued use is therefore of some cultural importance; the British enjoy the prestige and status of being a major English-speaking nation whose language acts as a common lingua franca for millions worldwide.

Various laws and procedures award some degree of recognition to other indigenous languages of the UK: for example, in 2011, Welsh became an official language of Wales through legislation passed by the Welsh Assembly[37], and Scottish law promotes Scots Gaelic with a view to making it official. In Northern Ireland, Irish and Ulster Scots are officially-recognised minority varieties. European Union legislation designed to protect minority languages has also granted some legislative protection to such languages as Scots, Cornish and British Sign Language (BSL). In contrast, though English is recognised in Scotland and Wales, no legal document explicitly defines it as an official language of the whole UK, meaning that the tongue of the overwhelming majority is protected by its sheer number of speakers rather than any act of parliament (though all acts of the British Parliament are in English).

The UK's native languages, aside from BSL, can be divided into two families: English and Scots are two closely-related Germanic languages, while Welsh, Scots Gaelic, Irish and Cornish are Celtic.[38]

Romani is a language brought to the UK's shores through immigration, but in the UK the term immigrant languages is generally reserved for more recent arrivals. The open passport system in the Commonwealth enabled immigration from former colonies. The UK includes the largest groups of Hindi and Punjabi speakers outside Asia. Such groups may maintain ties with historic homelands while playing an active part in all aspects of British life.

Even more recently, the expansion of the European Union in 2004 to accommodate ten mainly Eastern European countries has led to increased, although predominantly temporary, immigration. In a typical British urban area, therefore, languages such as Polish may be heard alongside Urdu and Bengali; likewise, English as a first or second language will be common to most of these speakers. Polish is currently the UKs second most spoken language, though this may cease to be true after the UK leaves the EU.

Religion

The United Kingdom is an increasingly secular society. Numbers saying they have no religion vary substantially with the exact form of the question, but time series indicate a substantial increase, and some surveys now give a majority. However, this overall decline masks increases, sometimes substantial, in non-Christian religions.[39] Similarly, the decline in Christianity masks growth in some forms, particularly some Evangelical/Pentecostal churches.

In terms of actual religious practice, 62 percent of those surveyed say that they never attend a religious service[40] The Church of England is the officially established church in England, and is the senior branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion[41]. The Presbyterian Church of Scotland (known as "The Kirk") is the official national church of Scotland. In Wales, the Church in Wales is disestablished from the Church of England, but remains a member of the Anglican communion. The Roman Catholic Church is the country's second largest Christian denomination and is the largest denomination in Northern Ireland. The Presbyterian Church in Ireland is closely linked to the Church of Scotland, and is the province's largest Protestant denomination. The United Kingdom's Christian denominations also include the Methodists and Baptists, and there are substantial numbers of Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs with Judaism, Buddhism and other religions occurring in smaller numbers.

Economy

(the numbers quoted in this paragraph come from the OECD 2010 factbook[3], unless otherwise stated)

The United Kingdom has an open market economy with limited natural resources and a proficient workforce. It is an industrialised economy with a small agricultural sector. In more precise terms, trade in goods and services amounts to around 30 percent of GDP, and there are no trade restrictions except for agricultural products. Seventy percent of the working age population is in employment, with proficiency levels in reading, mathematics and science that are close to the OECD average. Agricultural products account for less than one percent of the value of domestic output, as compared with 39 percent for production and distribution, 17 percent for government, health and education, and 8 per cent for finance and insurance[42]. It is a heavily indebted economy with a household debt burden among the highest in the world at about 160 percent of disposable income, and government debt in line with the OECD average at about 100 percent of GDP; and the debt burden is expected to rise[43]. As percentages of GDP, total tax revenue, and taxation on corporate income are about the same as the OECD average, and the revenue from taxation on personal income is about 10 per cent higher. The economy is currently running at below capacity with an output gap of 4.4 percent, compared with a 3.4 percent OECD average, and the unemployment rate is 7.9 percent compared with an OECD average of 8.5 percent.

Armed Forces

The armed forces of the UK are known as the British Armed Forces or His Majesty's Armed Forces, but officially Armed Forces of the Crown. Their Commander-in-Chief is the British monarch, HM The King and they are managed by the Ministry of Defence. The armed forces are controlled by the Defence Council currently headed by Air Chief Marshal Sir Jock Stirrup.

The UK fields one of the most powerful and comprehensive armed forces in the World. Its global power projection capabilities are second only to those of the United States Military. The UK has the 2nd highest military expenditure in the world after the USA.

The UK has a comprehensive nuclear arsenal, one of the few countries to do so, using the submarine-based Trident II ballistic missile system with nuclear warheads. These Vanguard class submarines were designed and built by VSEL (now BAE Systems Submarines) at Barrow-in-Furness.

The British Armed Forces are charged with protecting the UK and its overseas territories, promoting the UK's wider security interests, and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and other coalition operations.

One of the Royal Navy's Nuclear Submarines launches a Trident II Nuclear Missile.

The British Army had a reported strength of 102,440 in 2005[44] and the Royal Air Force a strength of 49,210. The 36,320-member Royal Navy operates the UK's nuclear deterrent, which consists of four Trident missile-armed submarines, while the Royal Marines are the Royal Navy's Light Infantry units for amphibious operations and for specialist reinforcement forces in and beyond the NATO area. This puts total active duty military troops in the 190,000 range, currently deployed in over eighty countries.

There are also reserve forces supporting the regular military. These include an army reserve, the Territorial Army (TA); the Royal Naval Reserve (RNR), Royal Marines Reserve (RMR) and the Royal Auxiliary Air Force (RAuxAF). About 9% of the regular armed forces are comprised of women, a figure that is higher for the reserve forces.

The United Kingdom Special Forces, principally the Special Air Service (SAS) and Special Boat Service (SBS), but including others, provide troops trained for quick, mobile, military responses in Counter-Terrorism, land, maritime and amphibious operations; often where secrecy or covert operations are required. The Royal Navy is the second largest navy in the Western World in terms of gross tonnage. Despite the United Kingdom's wide-ranging capabilities, recent pragmatic defence policy has a stated assumption that "the most demanding operations" would be undertaken as part of a coalition.[45] Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq Granby, no-fly zones, Desert Fox, and Telic) may all be taken as precedent; indeed the last war in which the British military fought alone was the Falklands War of 1982, with full-scale combat operations lasting almost three months.

Culture

Education and science

The UK has some of the world's leading universities,[46] including the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge. It has produced many great scholars, scientists and engineers including Isaac Newton, Adam Smith, The Lord Kelvin, Humphry Davy, Joseph John Thomson, Michael Faraday, Charles Darwin, Alexander Fleming, Francis Crick, Joseph William Bazalgette and Isambard Kingdom Brunel; the nation is credited with numerous inventions including the steam locomotive, vaccination, television, the modern railway, the lawn mower, electric lighting, the electric motor, the screw propeller, the internal combustion engine, the jet engine, the modern bicycle, the ejector seat, the third mechanical and electronic computer, along with the later development of the World Wide Web.

In 2006, it was reported that the UK was the most productive source of research after the USA, producing 9% of the world's scientific research papers and attracting 12% of all citations.[47]

Literature

The plays of William Shakespeare crowd the stage of English letters. Other major writers include Daniel Defoe, Sir Walter Scott, Jane Austen, Charles Dickens, the Brontë sisters, Thomas Hardy, Joseph Conrad, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Virginia Woolf, D. H. Lawrence, George Orwell and Graham Greene Contemporary British writers include Salman Rushdie and J. K. Rowling.

Important playwrights include Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson and, more recently Alan Ayckbourn, Harold Pinter and Tom Stoppard. Important poets include Geoffrey Chaucer, Shakespeare, John Milton, William Blake, Robert Burns, William Wordsworth, Lord Byron, John Keats, Lord Tennyson, R. S. Thomas, Wilfred Owen, John Betjeman, W. H. Auden, Dylan Thomas and Ted Hughes.

Design and architecture

The UK has produced a number of important architects, including Sir Christopher Wren, and Sir Norman Foster along with designers Charles Rennie Mackintosh and Jonathan Ive.

Music

George Frideric Handel, especially with his English oratorios (notably "Messiah"), is the most performed British composer (he was naturalized by Act of Parliament in 1727). Others include Henry Purcell, Edward Elgar, Arthur Sullivan (most famous for working with librettist W. S. Gilbert as "Gilbert and Sullivan"), Ralph Vaughan Williams, and Benjamin Britten.

The UK was, with the USA, one of the two main contributors in the development of rock and roll, and the UK has provided some of the world's most famous rock bands including the Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd and the Rolling Stones. The UK was at the forefront of punk rock with bands like the Sex Pistols and the Clash, music in the 1970s as well as the subsequent rebirth of heavy metal. The late-1970s and 1980s saw the rise of New Wave. The so-called 'Second British Invasion' into the US popular music scene took place from 1982 to 1984 when UK bands flooded the US Billboard charts. In the mid to late-1990s, the Britpop phenomenon saw bands such as Oasis and Blur attain considerable national and international success. The 1990s also saw the rise of major Welsh bands such as the Stereophonics and Manic Street Preachers. The UK is also at the forefront of electronica, with British artists such as the Prodigy and the Chemical Brothers helping this mainly underground genre to cross over into the mainstream (having originated in the early-90's with techno bands such as Orbital). Also British pop producers Stock Aitken Waterman - dominated the charts in the late-80's and early-90's with their instantly recognisable brand of pop. The 1990s charts were also dominated by the boy band phenomenon, with groups such as Take That thriving amongst countless others. Girl groups such as the Spice Girls also found considerable success. From 1997 onwards, so-called 'soft rock' bands have dominated the serious popular music scene including Coldplay, although after 2003 a high number of 'indie rock' bands emerged and have found considerable success.

Media

The UK has a large and diverse media, and the prominence of the English language gives it an international dimension.

The BBC is the UK's publicly-funded radio and television broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest broadcaster in the world. Funded by the compulsory television licence, the BBC operates several television channels and radio stations both in the UK and abroad. The BBC World Service radio channel is broadcast in 33 languages around the world. BBC News is also broadcast around the world. The main, free-to-air television channels in the UK are BBC1, BBC2, ITV1 (STV in Scotland), Channel 4 and Five. The main satellite broadcaster is British Sky Broadcasting, and digital cable services are provided by Virgin Media (created by the merger of NTL and Telewest ), and free-to-air digital terrestrial television by Freeview.

Radio in the UK is dominated by BBC Radio, which operates ten national and forty regional radio stations. The most popular radio station, by number of listeners, is BBC Radio 2 which specialises in popular music aimed at the 'middle aged' age bracket; it is closely followed by BBC Radio 1, aimed at the 15-24 aged bracket and the previous market leader. Commercial radio tends to be regionalized, although Virgin Radio, Classic FM and talkSPORT are broadcast nationally. Popular regional stations include Capital Radio in London; Heart in London and Midlands; Galaxy in Birmingham and the north of England; Magic in London and the north of England; and Radio Clyde in Glasgow.

Traditionally, British newspapers could be split into "quality", serious-minded newspapers (usually referred to as broadsheets because of their large size) and tabloid, popular newspapers. However, because of considerations of convenience of reading, many traditional broadsheets have both switched to a 'compact'-sized format, traditionally used by tabloids. The Sun has the highest circulation of any daily newspaper in the UK, with approximately a quarter of the market; its sister paper, The News of The World similarly leads the Sunday newspaper market,[48] and traditionally focuses on celebrity-led stories. The Daily Telegraph, a right-of-centre paper, is the highest selling of the qualities (former broadsheets), having overtaken The Times in circulation figures.[49] The Guardian is a more liberal or left-wing former broadsheet. The Financial Times is the main business paper, printed on distinctive salmon-pink broadsheet paper.

Sport

A number of major sports originated in the United Kingdom including association football and cricket, which are the world's most popular team sports in terms of both spectators and participants. Other sports which originated in Britain are golf and rugby football (rugby union and rugby league), while sports like boxing, horse racing, motor racing, and tennis owe their modern popularity to British development and promotion. London has hosted the Olympic Games three times — in 1908, 1948, and 2012.

Football

The most popular sport in the country is association football, commonly known just as "football". The UK never competes as a nation in football tournaments. Instead, the home nations compete individually as England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. It is because of this unique four-team arrangement that the British Olympic squad does not include a football team.

Domestically, British football clubs compete in national leagues and competitions from which the top teams may qualify to compete in European competitions. English clubs are generally successful in Europe and several have won continental titles. The most prestigious title is the European Cup, now called the UEFA Champions League. Celtic were the first British winners of the European Cup in 1967, but that remains the only one won by a Scottish club. Liverpool with six European Cup wins to 2024 are the most successful British club; Manchester United were the first English winners in 1968 and have three titles.

Cricket

Football superseded cricket as the country's national sport around the end of the 19th century. Cricket is still the most popular summer sport with clubs in almost every town and village, especially throughout England. The highest level of domestic competition is the County Cricket Championship, which involves eighteen county clubs as far afield as Durham, Kent, and Somerset. Seventeen of the first-class counties are in England; the exception is Glamorgan in South Wales. The most successful county teams tend to be those with international stadiums such as Yorkshire, Lancashire, Nottinghamshire, Surrey, and Middlesex whose home ground is the famous Lord's, owned by Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) in north London.

Internationally, the England team is an amalgam of England and Wales, reflecting the structure of the County Championship. England is a full member of the International Cricket Council (ICC) and so plays Test cricket. Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland play cricket together and the combined Ireland team is also a full ICC member. Scotland has been independent in cricket since 1992 and is an associate member of the ICC, meaning they can play in limited over international matches but not Test matches.

Other sports

Horse racing has been very popular in England ever since the time of Charles II when it became known as the "Sport of Kings". It remains a royal pastime to this day and Elizabeth II was an acknowleged expert. World-famous races include the Grand National and the Epsom Derby.

The ancient sport of boxing became popular in 18th century England in the form of bareknuckle prizefighting for large purses. A set of rules was drafted in 1743 by the champion fighter Jack Broughton and these formed the basis of the London Prize Ring Rules in 1838. Modern boxing is based on the Queensberry Rules which were written by John Graham Chambers, a Welshman, in 1865. Heavyweight boxing is very popular in Britain and the country has produced several famous fighters including Bob Fitzsimmons, Tommy Farr, Henry Cooper, Lennox Lewis, and Tyson Fury.

Golf, which originated in Scotland, remains one of the UK's most popular participation sports. The Royal and Ancient Golf Club, which organises the Open Championship every July, is based in St Andrews, Fife. The Open is one of golf's four Major Tournaments. In tennis, the Wimbledon Championships are held in June each year and this is one of the four Grand Slam tournaments.

Shinty or camanachd (a sport derived from the same root as the Irish hurling and similar to bandy) is popular in the Scottish Highlands, sometimes attracting crowds numbering thousands in the most sparsely populated region of the UK.

The country is closely associated with motorsport of all kinds. Many teams and drivers in Formula One and other events are based in Britain and the British Grand Prix, held every summer at the Silverstone race track in Northamptonshire, is an event in the Formula One World Championship. British world champions in Formula One include Jim Clark, Jackie Stewart and Lewis Hamilton.

Legend has it that a schoolboy called William Webb Ellis invented rugby football when he picked up the ball during a football match and ran with it in his hands into his opponents' goal. The story is apocryphal but the sport does get its name from the school in Rugby, Warwickshire, where Webb was a pupil in the 1820s (the same place is the setting for Tom Brown's Schooldays). Rugby league originated in the North of England in 1895, following a split with union on the issue of professionalism. League is still a predominately northern sport, whereas union is very popular in Wales and has many clubs throughout the South of England. Union is considered the national sport of Wales. League has a single international team called Great Britain; union has England, Scotland, and Wales. As in cricket, Northern Ireland is part of a combined Ireland team. Union also has the British and Irish Lions team for summer tours of Australia, New Zealand or South Africa.

Symbols

  • The flag of the UK is the Union Flag (commonly known as the "Union Jack"), which is a superimposition of the flags of England (St George's Cross) and Scotland (Saint Andrew's Cross); the Saint Patrick's cross, representing Ireland, was added in 1801.
  • The national anthem is God Save the King, or God Save the Queen, as appropriate.[50]
  • Britannia is a personification of Great Britain, originating from the Roman occupation of the southern and central parts of the island, which they called Britannia.[51] Britannia is symbolised as a young woman with brown or golden hair, wearing a Corinthian helmet and white robes. She holds Poseidon's three-pronged trident and a shield, bearing the Union Flag. Sometimes she is depicted as riding the back of a lion. In modern usage, Britannia is often associated with maritime dominance, as in the patriotic song Rule Britannia.
  • The lion has also been used as a symbol of the UK; one is depicted behind Britannia on the 50 pence piece and one is shown crowned on the back of the 10 pence piece, it is also used as a symbol on the non-ceremonial flag of the British Army. Lions have been used as heraldic devices many times, including in the royal arms of the kingdoms of England, Scotland, Kingdom of Gwynedd in Wales and of Northern Ireland. The lion is featured on the emblem of the England national football team, and the England Women's team is known as the Lionesses.
  • The bulldog, or "British Bulldog", is sometimes used as a symbol of the United Kingdom.
  • Britain (especially England) is also personified as the character John Bull.

Miscellaneous data

  • Cellular frequency: GSM 900, GSM 1800, UMTS 2100
  • Cellular technology: GSM/GPRS/EDGE/UMTS/HSDPA
  • Date format: DD/MM/YY (example: 22/12/05) or 22 December 2005
  • Time format: Generally 12-hour format when spoken or in writing (example: 5.15 pm), 24-hour format is used in some official documentation and in timetables (example: 17:15 or 1715).
  • Decimal separator is a full stop: 123.45
  • Thousands are separated (formal) by a comma: 10,000. (To avoid confusion with continental countries which use the comma as the decimal separator, a space may be used, e.g. 10 000.)
  • Voltage: 230V (+10% / -6%), 50 Hz; Power connector: 3 rectangle pins

Footnotes

  1. The British constitution is not codified into a single document but is recorded in the form of an extensive a body of common-and state law.
  2. Parliamentary sovereignty, www.parliament.uk
  3. Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011
  4. The Earl of Home completed the legal formalities of disclaiming his peerage four days after being appointed Prime Minister, and was elected to the Commons in a by-election shortly after.
  5. Crown Definition, Duhaime's Legal Dictionary
  6. Oonagh Gay and Thomas Powell: The collective responsibility of Ministers - an outline of the issues, House of Commons Research Paper, 15 November 2004
  7. Ministerial Code, Cabinet Office, May 2010
  8. The Civil Service Commission
  9. Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010
  10. Oonagh Gay Special Advisers, House of Commons Library, November 2010
  11. Bob Tyrrell: Is British politics ideology-free?, BBC News, 13 April 2006
  12. Where They Stand: Guide to party election policies, Election 2010, BBC News
  13. Devolved government in the UK, DirectGov, 2012
  14. The Scottish Government
  15. The Scottish Parliament, 2012
  16. Welsh Government, 2012
  17. National Assembly for Wales, 2012
  18. Northern Ireland Executive, 2012
  19. Northern Ireland Assembly, 2012
  20. The Supreme Court, 2012
  21. European Law as a source of UK Law, UK Law online, 2012
  22. Human Rights Act 1998, Legislation.gov.uk
  23. Geography of the United Kingdom CIA, Accessed May 22 2006
  24. Geography of Scotland Heritage of Scotland, Accessed May 22 2006
  25. Dialysis Scotland Accessed May 22, 2006
  26. Geography of Wales BBC Wales, Accessed May 22 2006
  27. Geography of Northern Ireland University of Ulster Accessed May 22 2006]]
  28. using the term in an objective sense; officially, Greater London is not a city, the population of the official "City" of London is in four figures, and Birmingham is the largest city
  29. [1]
  30. Census 2001: South East, Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 14 May 2006.
  31. All people population: City of London. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved on 2006-08-31.
  32. United Kingdom. Humana. Retrieved on 2006-05-18.
  33. Immigration fails to stem European population loss. The Guardian (2006-08-17). Retrieved on 2006-08-20.
  34. [2]
  35. 'Nearly 600,000' new EU migrants, BBC, 22 August 2006. Retrieved 22 August 2006.
  36. International migration: Net inflow rose in 2004, ONS, 15 December 2005. Retrieved 24 August 2006.
  37. BBC News: ''Historic' assembly vote for new Welsh language law'. 7th December 2010.
  38. The Indo-Aryan language Romani, which is spoken by the Roma minority, is not native to the UK, though its speakers are mostly British.
  39. 2011 census data give the following percentage increases in absolute numbers over the 2001 census: Muslims 75, Buddhists 72, Hindus 49, Sikhs 29, Jews 1, total other religions 47; for comparison, the total for no religion or not stated (in 2001, these were not separated in all parts of the country) increased by 52%, while the figure for Christians decreased by 11%. What would have been the 2021 census for Scotland was postponed for a year because of the Covid-19 pandemic, but the rest of the country went ahead. As a result, there are no UK-wide figures for any one date. However, the figures for England and Wales, which include most of the population, clearly show even nominal Christians now a minority. Other religions have continued to grow (religions added together still include the majority of the population), with the highest proportionate growth being for Shamanism, though it still has small absolute numbers.
  40. The British Social Attitudes Survey, data.gv.uk 2011
  41. The Anglican Community
  42. Blue book par 2.1
  43. Household debt forecast. Office of Budget Responsibility, April 2011
  44. "Annual Reports and Accounts 2004-05", Ministry of Defence. Retrieved 14 May 2006. Template:PDFlink
  45. Office for National Statistics "UK 2005: The Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" p. 89
  46. "Top 500 World Universities (1-100)", Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 2005. Retrieved 15 May 2006
  47. "Britain second in world research rankings", Guardian, 21 March 2006, retrieved 14 May 2006.
  48. ABC Newspaper Circulation Figures The Times, May 12 2006, accessed May 16 2006.
  49. Audit Bureau of Circulation Interactive Analysis National Newspaper Selection - Average Net Circulation (UK) 03-Jul-2006 to 30-Jul-2006. Retrieved on 2006-09-04. Lists Daily Telegraph as 844,929 and The Times as 620,456.
  50. It is sometimes asserted by those used to a legislative tradition that God Save the King/Queen is not the actual national anthem of the UK, (or sometimes that it is the de facto national anthem) because no law has ever been passed to say so. In Britain, however, codification of the law is usually unnecessary; custom, practice and proclamation are sufficient to establish it as the official national anthem.
  51. Britannia on British Coins. Chard. Retrieved on 2006-06-25.