Scottish Enlightenment
The Scottish Enlightenment[1] refers to a remarkable period in 18th century Scotland characterized by a great outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments rivalling that of any other nation at any time in history. What made it even more remarkable was that it took place in a country which was among the poorest and was thought to be among the most backward in western Europe prior to that time.
Sharing the humanist and rationalist outlook of the European Enlightenment of the same time period, the thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment asserted the fundamental importance of human reason combined with a rejection of any authority which could not be justified by reason. They held to an optimistic belief in the ability of man to effect changes for the better in society and nature, guided only by reason.
It was this latter feature which gave the Scottish Enlightenment its special flavor, distinguishing it from its European counterpart. In Scotland, the Enlightenment was characterized by a thoroughgoing empiricism and practicality where the chief virtues were held to be improvement, virtue, and practical benefit for both the individual and society as a whole.
Among the advances of the period were achievements in philosophy, economics, engineering, architecture, medicine, geology, archaeology, law, agriculture, chemistry, and sociology. Among the outstanding Scottish thinkers and scientists of the period were Francis Hutcheson, David Hume, Adam Smith, Robert Burns, Adam Ferguson, and James Hutton.
The Scottish Enlightenment had effects far beyond Scotland itself, not only because of the esteem in which Scottish ahievements were held in Europe and elsewhere, but also because its ideas and attitudes were carried across the Atlantic as part of the Scottish diaspora which had its beginnings in that same era.
Origins of the Scottish Enlightenment
In the period following the Act of Union 1707 Scotland's place in the world altered radically. Following the Reformation, many Scottish academics were teaching in great cities of mainland Europe but with the birth and rapid expansion of the new British Empire came a revival of philosophical thought in Scotland and a prodigious diversity of thinkers. Arguably the poorest country in Western Europe in 1707, Scotland was then able to turn its attentions to the wider world without the opposition of England. [2] Scotland reaped the economic benefits of free trade within the British Empire together with the intellectual benefits of having established Europe's first public education system since classical times. Under these twin stimuli, Scottish thinkers began questioning assumptions previously taken for granted; and with Scotland's traditional connections to France, then in the throes of the Enlightenment, the Scots began developing a uniquely practical branch of humanism to the extent that Voltaire said "We look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilisation."[3] [4]
Empiricism and common sense
The first major philosopher of the Scottish Enlightenment was Francis Hutcheson, [5] who held the Chair of Philosophy at the University of Glasgow from 1729 to 1746. A moral philosopher with alternatives to the ideas of Thomas Hobbes, one of his major contributions to world thought was the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, “the greatest happiness for the greatest number.”
Much of what is incorporated in the scientific method (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by David Hume. "Like many of the learned Scots, he revered the new science of Copernicus, Bacon, Galileo, Kepler, Boyle, and Newton; he believed in the experimental method and loathed superstition."[6]
But the Scottish Enlightenment enjoyed an aspect not common to the French or German enlightenment: a devotion to common sense. With the publication of his works in the last half of the 18th century, Thomas Reid became the leading philosopher of Scotland, founding the so-called Scottish School of Common Sense, whose members included Dugald Steward, James Beattie, and later, in the 19th century, Sir William Hamilton. For about two generations, the common sense school of philosophy dominated the English speaking world--including the young United States--and had strong admirers in France.
Adam Smith developed and published The Wealth of Nations, the first work in modern economics. This famous study, which had an immediate impact on British economic policy, still frames 21st century discussions on globalization and tariffs.[7]
Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed what Hume called a "science of man" [8] which was expressed historically in works by such as James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar, and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behave in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Gathering places in Edinburgh such as The Select Society and, later, The Poker Club, were among the crucibles from which many of the ideas which distinguish the Scottish Enlightenment emerged.
The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist, James Anderson, a lawyer and agronomist, Joseph Black, physicist and chemist, and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.[9] While the Scottish Enlightenment is traditionally considered to have concluded toward the end of the 18th century,[6] it is worth noting that disproportionately large Scottish contributions to British science and letters continued for another fifty years or more, thanks to such figures as James Hutton, James Watt, William Murdoch, James Clerk Maxwell, Lord Kelvin and Sir Walter Scott.
Important figures associated with the Scottish Enlightenment
Robert Adam (1728-1792) architect
James Anderson (1739-1808) agronomist, lawyer, amateur scientist
Joseph Black (1728-1799) physicist and chemist, first to isolate carbon dioxide
Hugh Blair (1718-1800) minister, author
James Boswell (1740-1795) lawyer, author of Life of Johnson
Thomas Brown (1778–1820), Scottish moral philosopher and philosopher of mind; jointly held the Chair of Moral Philosophy at Edinburgh University with Dugald Stewart
James Burnett, Lord Monboddo (1714-1799) philosopher, judge, founder of modern comparative historical linguistics
Robert Burns[8] (1759-1796) poet
Alexander Campbell (1788-1866) founder of the Restoration Movement
George Campbell (1719-1796) philosopher of language, theology, and rhetoric
Sir John Clerk of Eldin (1728-1812) prolific artist, author of An Essay on Naval Tactics; great-uncle of James Clerk Maxwell
William Cullen (1710-1790) physician, chemist, early medical researcher
Adam Ferguson (1723-1816) first formulated the concept of civil society
James Hall, 4th Baronet (1761-1832) geologist, geophysicist
Henry Home, Lord Kames (1696-1782) philosopher, judge, historian
David Hume (1711-1776) philosopher, historian, essayist
Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746) philosopher of metaphysics, logic, and ethics
James Hutton[8][7] (1726–1797) founder of modern geology
Sir John Leslie (1766-1832) mathematician, physicist, investigator of heat (thermodynamics)
James Mill (1773-1836) late in the period - Father of John Stuart Mill.
John Millar (1735-1801) philosopher, historian, historiographer
John Playfair (1748-1819) mathematician, author of Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth
Allan Ramsay[9] (1686 - 1758) poet
Henry Raeburn[6] (1726-1823) portrait painter
Thomas Reid (1710-1796) philosopher, founder of the Scottish School of Common Sense
William Robertson (1721-1793) one of the founders of modern historical research
Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) lawyer, novelist, poet
John Sinclair (1754 - 1835) politician, writer, the first person to use the word statistics in the English language
William Smellie (1740-1795) editor of the first edition of Encyclopædia Britannica
Adam Smith (1723-1790) whose The Wealth of Nations was the first modern treatise on economics
Dugald Stewart (1753-1828) moral philosopher
John Walker (naturalist) (1730-1803) Natural History Professor
James Watt (1736-1819) student of James Black; engineer, inventor (see Watt steam engine)
References
- ↑ According to T.M. Devine, the term originated in 1900 with William Robert Scott. Some researches refer to the period as the Scottish Renaissance.
- ↑ Herman, Arthur (2001). How the Scots Invented the Modern World: The True Story of How Western Europe's Poorest Nation Created Our World & Everything in It, Hardcover: ISBN 978-0609606353, Paperback: ISBN 978-0609809990, Crown Publishing Group.
- ↑ José Manuel Barroso, 11th President of the European Commission (28 November 2006). The Scottish enlightenment and the challenges for Europe in the 21st century; climate change and energy (html). Enlightenment Lecture Series, Edinburgh University. “I will try to show why Voltaire was right when he said: 'Nous nous tournons vers l’Écosse pour trouver toutes nos idées sur la civilisation' [we look to Scotland for all our ideas on civilisation].”
- ↑ Visiting The Royal Society of Edinburgh… (html). Royal Society of Edinburgh. First published in The Scotsman Saturday 4 June 2005. “Scotland has a proud heritage of science, research, invention and innovation, and can lay claim to some of the greatest minds and greatest discoveries since Voltaire wrote those words 250 years ago.”
- ↑ David Denby (11 October 2004). Northern Lights: How modern life emerged from eighteenth-century Edinburgh (html). The New Yorker. Review of James Buchan's Crowded With Genius: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind (Capital of the Mind: Edinburgh in the UK) HarperCollins, 2003. Hardcover: ISBN 0-06-055888-1, ISBN 978-0060558888. “The fountainhead was Francis Hutcheson, a kind of pan-Enlightenment figure who, from 1729 until his death in 1746, held the chair in moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow, where he broke with tradition by lecturing in English as well as Latin. Hutcheson, a frequent visitor to Edinburgh, was Adam Smith’s teacher and he encouraged Hume’s early efforts. He was suspicious of metaphysics or any claims not based on observation or experience. Empiricism and the inductive method was the clarion call of the Scottish Enlightenment. The intellectual break with the past was drastic and seemingly irreversible. In recent years, scholars have traced the rudiments of modern psychology, anthropology, the earth sciences, and theories of civil society and liberal education to eighteenth-century Scotland.”
- ↑ ibid.
- ↑ Fry, Michael (1992). Adam Smith's Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics, Paul Samuelson, Lawrence Klein, Franco Modigliani, James M. Buchanan, Maurice Allais, Theodore Schultz, Richard Stone, James Tobin, Wassily Leontief, Jan Tinbergen, Routledge. ISBN 978-0415061643. “Adam Smith's Legacy brings together ten Nobel Laureates in Economics, the greatest number since the prize was instituted in 1969. They explore themes as diverse as Smith's use of data, his attitude towards human capital, and his views on economic policy. Heirs to Smith and leaders of the discipline, the contributors also reflect upon the current state of economics, assessing the extent to which it measures up to the benchmark established by its founder.”
- ↑ Magnussen, op. cit.
- ↑ Denby, op. cit. Repcheck, Jack (2003). "Chapter 7: The Athens of the North", The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity (in English). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Basic Books, The Perseus Books Group, pp. 117-143. ISBN 0-7382-0692-X. “Onto the list should also be added two men who never lived in Edinburgh but who visited and maintained an active correspondence with the scholars there: Ben Franklin (1706-1790), the statesman and talented polymath who discovered electricity; and Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), Charles Darwin's grandfather and the author of a precursor theory of evolution.”