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'''Zoroastrianism''' is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet [[Zoroaster]] (Zarathustra, Zartosht). '''Mazdaism''' is the religion that acknowledges the divine authority of [[Ahura Mazda]], proclaimed by Zoroaster.
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{{Image|Faravahar - Bob Azadi.jpg|right|350px|The Faravahar - the main symbol of the Zoroastrian faith}}
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'''Zoroastrianism'''<ref name=Zoroastrianism>The term '''Zoroastrianism''' was first attested by the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' in 1874 in Archibald Sayce's ''Principles of Comparative Philology''</ref> is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet [[Zoroaster]] (Zarathustra, Zartosht). '''Mazdaism'''<ref name=Mazdaism>'''Mazdaism''' is a 19th century construct, taking Mazda- from the name Ahura Mazda and adding the suffix ''-ism''</ref> is the religion which recognises [[Ahura Mazda]]'s supreme authority as the [[Monotheism|one God]]. The Zoroastrian name of the religion is '''Mazdayasna'''.<ref name=Mazdayasna>The term '''Mazdayasna''' is a combination of Mazda with the Avestan language word Yasna, meaning ''worship'' or ''devotion''</ref>


As demonstrated by Zoroastrianistic creed and [[Articles of Faith|articles of faith]], the two terms are effectively synonymous. In a declaration of the creed — the ''Fravarānē'' — the adherent states: "…I profess myself a devotee of Mazda, a follower of Zarathustra." (''[[Yasna]]'' 12.2, 12.8)
According to the teachings of Zoroaster, the universe is in a struggle between good and evil. The forces of good are led by Ahura Mazda, the wise Lord, and the forces of evil are led by [[Angra Mainyu]], the destructive principle.


While Zoroastrianism was once the dominant religion of much of [[Greater Iran]], the number of adherents has dwindled to not more than 200,000 worldwide,<!-- citations are in the properly contextualized [[#Demographics]] section below --> with concentrations in [[India]] and [[Iran]] (see [[#Demographics|demographics]] below).
==Beliefs and Practices==
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===Beliefs===
* Ahura Mazda<ref name=Mazda /> is the one universal and transcendental God, the uncreated creator, to whom all worship is directed.
* Ahura Mazda's creation — evident as [[asha]] (truth and order) is the antithesis of chaos, evident as [[druj]] (falsehood and disorder). The whole universe is involved in the resulting conflict. Humanity plays an important role in the conflict.
* Ahura Mazda will prevail. All souls, including those initially banished, will be reunited with Ahura Mazda.
* The malevolent are represented by [[Angra Mainyu]], the "destructive principle".
* The benevolent are represented by Ahura Mazda's [[Spenta Mainyu]], the "bounteous principle".
* Ahura Mazda emanated six divine "sparks", the [[Amesha Spentas]] ("Bounteous Immortals"), as expressions and aspects of creation, that are each representative of one aspect of that creation. A league of lesser principles, the [[Yazatas]], each "Worthy of Worship" and each again a representative of a moral or physical aspect of creation, in turn assist the Amesha Spentas.
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===Practices===
* Good thoughts, good words, and good deeds result in happiness and prevent chaos. Free will to choose between good and evil is an important aspect.
* Fire represents Ahura Mazda's purity. All prayer is directed to a source of fire.
* [[Monasticism]] in all forms is rejected.
* Zoroastrians do not proselytize.
* The traditional wing of Zoroastrianism discourages and does not recognize inter-faith marriages. A child must have two Zoroastrian parents for the [[Navjote|initiation]] ceremony to take place.
* The majority of Zoroastrians, particularly the [[Parsi]]s<ref name=parsi>The term ''Parsi'' was universally applied for all Iranians, regardless of faith, by all Indians. Similarly, Iranians applied the universal term ''Hindu'' for everyone from the subcontinent.</ref> of India, do not accept converts. However, the council of Mobeds in Tehran, Iran, allows conversion.


== Terminology ==  
==History==
The term ''Zoroastrianism'' was first attested by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' in 1874 in [[Archibald Sayce|Archibald Sayce's]] ''Principles of Comparative Philology''. The first surviving reference to Zoroaster in Western scholarship is attributed to [[Thomas Browne]] (1605–1682), who briefly refers to the prophet in his 1643 ''[[Religio Medici]]''. The [[OED]] records 1743 (Warburton, ''Pope's Essay'') as the earliest reference to Zoroaster.


The term ''Mazdaism'' is a typical 19th century construct, taking ''Mazda-'' from the name [[Ahura Mazda]] and adding the suffix ''-ism'' to suggest a belief system. The March 2001 draft edition of the ''[[OED]]'' also records an alternate form, ''Mazdeism'', perhaps derived from the French ''Mazdéisme'', which first appeared in 1871. The Zoroastrian name of the religion is ''Mazdayasna'', which combines ''Mazda-'' with the [[Avestan language]] word ''[[yasna]]'', meaning "worship, devotion".
===Founding & life of Zoroaster===
{{main|Zoroaster}}
The religion was founded by Zarathushtra (Zoroaster in Greek; Zarthosht in India and Persia). Conservative Zoroastrians assign a date of 6000 BCE to the founding of the religion; other followers estimate 600 BCE. Historians and religious scholars generally date his life sometime between 1500 and 1000 BCE on the basis of his style of writing. The date of birth of Zoroaster is very controversial. It is known that after [[Alexander_the_Great|Alexander's]] conquest of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], the Greeks imposed an "age of Alexander" calendar, which Zoroastrian priests replaced with an "age of Zoroaster" calendar. It was estimated that he was born 258 years before Alexander, hence the date of 600 BCE was accepted.<ref name=date>Shahbazi, A. Shapur (1977), ''"The 'Traditional Date of Zoroaster' Explained", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'' '''40''' (1): 25-35</ref>
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{{Image|Zoroaster Yazd.jpg|left|350px|Zoroaster on a plaque in Atashkadeh Chak-Nak near Yazd, Iran}}
Yasna 9 & 17 state that Zoroaster's home was near the river Ditya in [[Airyanəm Vaējah]], speculated to be in Central Asia, which was at that time dominated by Iranian tribes. He was born into a Bronze Age culture with a [[Polytheism|polytheistic]] religion, which included animal sacrifice and the ritual use of intoxicants. This religion was quite similar to the early forms of Hinduism of the Indus Valley. Zoroaster's birth and early life are little documented. What is known is recorded in the Gathas - the core of the Avesta, which contains hymns thought to be composed by Zoroaster himself. Born into the Spitama clan, he worked as a priest. He was a family man, with a wife, three sons and three daughters. Zoroaster rejected the religion of the Bronze Age Iranians with their many gods and oppressive class structure, in which the Karvis and Karapans (princes and priests) controlled the ordinary people. According to western scholars until recently, he also opposed animal sacrifices and the use of the hallucinogenic [[Haoma]] plant (possibly a species of ephedra) in rituals. However, as the drink is a central part of the faith, this opinion has been thoroughly revised.<ref name=haoma>Boyce, Mary & Grenet, Frantz - ''A History of Zoroastrianism'', ISBN 9004104747</ref>


In the [[English language]], an adherent of the faith commonly refers to him- or herself as a Zoroastrian or, less commonly, a Zarathustrian. An older, but still widespread expression is ''Behdin'', meaning "follower of ''Daena''", for which "[Good] Religion" is one translation. In the Zoroastrian [[liturgy]], the term ''Behdin'' is also used as a title for an individual who has been formally inducted into the religion (see ''[[navjote]]'' for details).
Zoroaster was initially unsuccessful in gaining converts apart from his cousin, but later he successfully converted the King, who made it the official religion. His death is not mentioned in the Avesta. In Ferdowsi's [[Shahnameh]] he is said to have been murdered at the altar by the Turanians in the storming of Balkh.<ref name=death>Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edition - ''[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Zoroaster Zoroaster]''</ref> Some Zoroastrians believe that Balkh is his final resting place, based on Ferdowsi's epic.


== Distinguishing characteristics ==
===Classical antiquity===
=== Basic beliefs ===
# There is one universal and transcendental God, [[Ahura Mazda]], the one uncreated creator and to whom all worship is ultimately directed.
# Ahura Mazda's creation — evident as ''[[asha]]'', truth and order — is the [[antithesis]] of chaos, evident as ''druj'', falsehood and disorder. The resulting conflict involves the entire universe, including humanity, which has an active role to play in the conflict.
# Active participation in life through good thoughts, good words and good deeds is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep the chaos at bay. This ''active'' participation is a central element in Zoroaster's concept of [[free will]], and Zoroastrianism rejects all forms of [[monasticism]].
# Ahura Mazda will ultimately prevail, at which point the universe will undergo a cosmic renovation and time will end (''cf:'' [[Zoroastrian eschatology]]). In the final renovation, all of creation — even the souls of the dead that were initially banished to "darkness" — will be reunited in Ahura Mazda.
# In Zoroastrian tradition, the malevolent is represented by [[Angra Mainyu]], the "Destructive Principle", while the benevolent is represented through Ahura Mazda's [[Amesha Spenta|Spenta Mainyu]], the instrument or "Bounteous Principle" of the act of creation. It is through Spenta Mainyu that Ahura Mazda is immanent in humankind, and through which the Creator interacts with the world. According to Zoroastrian cosmology, in articulating the [[Ahuna Vairya]] formula, Ahura Mazda made His ultimate triumph evident to Angra Mainyu.
# As expressions and aspects of Creation, Ahura Mazda emanated seven "sparks", the [[Amesha Spenta]]s, "Bounteous Immortals" that are each the hypostasis and representative of one aspect of that Creation. These Amesha Spenta are in turn assisted by a league of lesser principles, the [[Yazata]]s, each "Worthy of Worship" and each again a hypostasis of a moral or physical aspect of creation.


=== Other characteristics ===
Although Zoroastrianism is much older, there are no significant sources mentioning the faith prior to the fifth century BCE. [[Herodotus]] was the first to write about Persian society, in his account of researches ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]''. He mentions similarities to the Zoroastrian faith, including exposure of the dead.  
* The symbol of fire: The energy of the creator is represented in Zoroastrianism by fire and the sun which are both enduring, radiant, pure and life sustaining. Zoroastrians usually pray in front of some form of fire (or any source of light). (It is important to note that fire is not worshipped by Zoroastrians, but is used simply as symbol and a point of focus, much like the crucifix in Catholicism. For details, see [[Fire temple]])
* Proselytizing and conversion: Parsi Zoroastrians do not [[proselytism|proselytize]]. In recent years, however, Zoroastrian communities in Iran, Europe and the Americas have been more tolerant towards conversion. While this move has not been supported officially by the priesthood in Mumbai, India, it has been endorsed by the Council of Mobeds in Tehran.
* Inter-faith marriages: As in many other faiths, Zoroastrians are strongly encouraged to marry others of the same faith, but this is not a requirement of the religion itself. Some members of the Indian Zoroastrian community (the [[Parsi]]s) contend that a child must have a Parsi father to be eligible for introduction into the faith, but this assertion is considered by most to be a violation of the Zoroastrian tenets of gender equality, and may be a remnant of an old legal definition (since overruled) of Parsi. However, to this day, some priests will not perform the [[Navjote]] ceremony — i.e. the rites of admission into the religion — for children of mixed-marriages, irrespective of which parent is a non-Parsi. This issue is a matter of great debate within the Parsi community, but with the increasingly global nature of modern society and the dwindling number of Zoroastrians, such opinions are less vociferous than they were previously.
* Death and burial: Religious rituals related to death are all concerned with the person's soul and not the body. Zoroastrians believe that on the fourth day after death, the human soul leaves the body and the body remains as an empty shell. Traditionally, Zoroastrians disposed of their dead by leaving them atop open-topped enclosures, called [[Towers of Silence]], or ''Dokhmas''. Vultures and the weather would clean the flesh off the bones, which were then placed into an [[ossuary]] at the center of the Tower (usually a well). Fire and Earth were considered too sacred for the dead to be placed in them. While this practice is continued in India by some Parsis, it had ended by the beginning of the twentieth century in Iran. In India, burial and cremation are becoming increasingly popular alternatives.


== History ==
{{Image|Angra Mainyu attacking Bull.jpg|right|350px|Angra Mainyu attacking a Bull, Persepolis}}
=== Classical Antiquity ===
Herodotus names the tribes of Media - Busae, Parataceni, Struchates, Arizanti, Budii, Magi, and the tribes of Persia - Pasargadae, Maraphii, and Maspii, upon who'm all tribes are dependant upon. The most important tribe was the Pasargadae, of which the [[Achaemenid]] clan ruled over Persia. The Magi of Media, a priestly class, used to have considerable power over the courts of the Median Kings.  
Although older (9th/10th century BCE, see [[Zoroaster]]) Zoroastrianism only enters recorded history in the mid-5th century BCE. [[Herodotus]]' ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|The Histories]]'' (completed ''c.'' 440 BCE) includes a description of [[Greater Iran]]ian society with what may be recognizably Zoroastrian features, including exposure of the dead. (See [[Towers of Silence]]).


Perhaps more importantly, ''The Histories'' is a primary source of information on the early period of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid era]] (648–330 BCE), in particular with respect to the role of the [[Magi]]. According to Herodotus i.101, the Magi were the sixth tribe of the Medians (until the unification of the Persian empire under [[Cyrus the Great]], all Iranians were referred to as Mede or Mada by the peoples of the Ancient World), who appear to have been the priestly caste of the Mesopotamian-influenced branch of Zoroastrianism today known as [[Zurvanism]], and who wielded considerable influence at the courts of the [[Medes|Median]] emperors.
[[Cyrus the Great]] and his son [[Cambyses II]], after the unification of Persia and Media, were responsible for reducing the power of the Magi class. In revolt, the Magi placed an usurper, pretending to be Cyrus's son [[Smerdis]]. The usurper was accepted by most people, as he had waived taxes for three years. According to the [[Behistun inscription]], pseudo-Smerdis ruled for seven months, before being overthrown by [[Darius I]]. The Magi were persecuted, but continued to exist.


Following the unification of the Median and Persian empires in 550 BCE, [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus II]] and later his son [[Cambyses II]] curtailed the powers of the Magi after these had attempted to seed dissent following their loss of influence. In 522 BCE, the Magi revolted and set up a rival claimant to the throne. The usurper, pretending to be Cyrus' younger son [[Smerdis]], took power shortly thereafter. Owing to the despotic rule of Cambyses and his long absence in Egypt, "the whole people, Persians, Medes and all the other nations" acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a remission of taxes for three years (Herodotus iii. 68).
It is unknown if [[Cyrus II]] was Zoroastrian, however, it was the non-imposing religion of the Empire. It influenced him to the extent that he freed the Jews, who were exiled. Darius I and later Emperors were Zoroastrians.


According to the [[Behistun Inscription]], pseudo-Smerdis ruled for seven months before being overthrown by [[Darius I]] in 521 BCE. The "Magi", though persecuted, continued to exist, and a year following the death of the first pseudo-Smerdis (named Gaumata), had a second pseudo-Smerdis (named Vahyazdāta) attempt a coup. The coup, though initially successful, failed.
[[Darius I]] and later [[Achaemenid Emperors]] permitted other religions to coexist, and exercised perfect religious tolerance.<ref name=herodotus>Herodotus - ''[http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodotus/logoi.html Histories]''</ref> It was in the later Achaemenid era that proto-indo-Iranian religious elements were incorporated into the faith. The days of the months of the Zoroastrian calendar are dedicated to them.


Whether Cyrus II was a Zoroastrian is subject to debate. It did however influence him to the extent that it became the non-imposing religion of his empire, and its beliefs would later allow Cyrus to free the Jews from captivity (and allow them to return to [[Judea]]) when the emperor took [[Babylon]] in 539 BCE. Whether Darius I, though certainly a devotee of [[Ahura Mazda]] (as attested to several times in the Behistun inscription), was a follower of Zoroaster has not been conclusively established, since a devotion to Ahura Mazda was (at the time) not necessarily an indication of an adherence to Zoroaster's teaching.
Many books on the Zoroastrian faith were destroyed by [[Alexander the Great]]'s army after the siege of Persepolis.<ref name=books>Denkard - ''Book of Arda Viraf''</ref> After that, there are no sources  about Zoroastrianism during the rule of the [[Seleucid Empire]] and the [[Parthian Empire]]. After Alexander's conquest, he imposed many restrictions on the Zoroastrians, particularly by closing the [[Towers of silence]], as the Greeks considered the act of leaving the dead to be devoured by vultures to be appalling.<ref name=appalling>Rawlinson, H.G. - ''Bactria, The History Of A Forgotten Empire'', ISBN 8120616154</ref>


Darius I and later [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid emperors]], though acknowledging their devotion to Ahura Mazda in inscriptions, appear to have permitted religions to coexist. Nonetheless, it was during the Achaemenid period that Zoroastrianism gained momentum, and a number of the Zoroastrian texts (that today are part of the greater compendium of the [[Avesta]]) have been attributed to that period.  It was also during the (later) Achaemenid era that many of the divinities and divine concepts of proto-Indo-Iranian religion(s) were incorporated in Zoroastrianism, in particular, those to whom the days of the month of the [[Zoroastrian calendar]] are dedicated. That religious calendar, which is still in use today, is itself (to some extent) an Achaemenid-era development.  Those divinities, the [[yazata]]s, are present-day Zoroastrianism's [[angel]]s. (Dhalla, 1938).
===Late antiquity===
{{Image|Sassanid Mithra.jpg|right|350px|Ardashir II receiving his crown from Ahura Mazda, Mithra standing (left) as a priest}}
The [[Sassanid Empire]] came into power in 228 CE. They aggressively promoted the [[Zurivanite]] sect of Zoroastrianism, and were well known for building Fire Temples in every area they conquered.<ref name=lateantiquity>Hartman, Sven S. - ''Parsism: The Religion of Zoroaster'', page '''7''', ISBN 9004062084</ref> Other religions, particularly Manichaenism and Christianity, were persecuted, apart from those loyal to the Patriarchate of Babylon.  


Almost nothing is known of the status of Zoroastrianism under the [[Seleucids]] and [[Parthians]] who ruled over Persia following [[Alexander the Great]]'s invasion in 330 BCE. According to later Zoroastrian legend (''[[Denkard]]'', ''[[Book of Arda Viraf]]''), many of the Zoroastrian sacred texts were lost when Alexander's troops destroyed the royal library at [[Persepolis]] subsequent to the taking of the city. [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus Siculus's]] ''Bibliotheca historia'' (completed ''c.'' 60 BCE), which is to a great extent an encapsulation of earlier works, appears to substantiate Zoroastrian legend (Diod. 17.72.2–17.72.6). According to one archaeological examination, the ruins of the palace of [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] bear traces of having been subjected to fire (Stolze, 1882). Whether a vast collection of (semi-)religious texts "written on parchment in gold ink" as suggested by the ''Denkard'' actually existed remains a matter of speculation, but is in all likelihood untrue. Given that many of the ''Denkard''s statements-as-fact have since been established as untrue, among scholars, the tale of the library is widely accepted to be a fiction. (Kellens, 2002)
Zoroastrianism spread throughout this period in different forms from the Caucasus to China. During the [[Southern dynasty China|Southern]] and [[Northern dynasty China|Northern]] Dynasties, Zoroastrianism founded its roots in the city states of the Silkroad. The spread of Zoroastrianism by missionaries was prohibited, and in the years following 841 A.D all foreign religions were prohibited although some parishes could survive until the [[Song dynasty|Song]] period. Zoroastrianism soon lost its ground and vanished in this region.<ref name=ChinaKnowledge.de>ChinaKnowledge.de - ''Religions in China - [http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Religion/xianjiao.html Zoroastrianism]''</ref>


Zoroastrianism had a significant influence on [[Greek philosophy]] and [[History of Western philosophy|Roman philosophy]]. Several [[ancient Greek]] writers such as  [[Eudoxus of Cnidus]] and [[Latin]] writers such as [[Pliny the Elder]] praised Zoroastrian philosophy as "the most famous and most useful". [[Plato]] learnt of Zoroastrian philosophy through Eudoxus and incorporated some of it into his own [[Platonic realism]].<ref>A. D. Nock (1929), "''Studien zum antiken Synkretismus aus Iran und Griechenland'' by R. Reitzenstein, H. H. Schaeder, Fr. Saxl", ''The Journal of Hellenic Studies'' '''49''' (1), p. 111-116 [111].</ref> In the 3rd century BC, however, [[Colotes]] accused Plato's ''[[The Republic (Plato)|The Republic]]'' of plagiarizing parts of Zoroaster's ''On Nature'', such as the [[Myth of Er]].<ref>A. D. Nock (1929), "''Studien zum antiken Synkretismus aus Iran und Griechenland'' by R. Reitzenstein, H. H. Schaeder, Fr. Saxl", ''The Journal of Hellenic Studies'' '''49''' (1), p. 111-116.</ref><ref>David N. Livingstone (2002), ''The Dying God: The Hidden History of Western Civilization'', p. 144-145, iUniverse, ISBN 0595231993.</ref> Plato's contemporary, [[Heraclides Ponticus]], wrote a text called ''Zoroaster'' based on Zoroaster's philosophy in order to express his disagreement with Plato on [[natural philosophy]].<ref>David N. Livingstone (2002), ''The Dying God: The Hidden History of Western Civilization'', p. 147, iUniverse, ISBN 0595231993.</ref>
===Islamic Invasion and decline===
{{main|Islamic conquest of Persia|Persecution of Zoroastrians}}


=== Late antiquity ===
With the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] invasion of the Sassanid Empire in 650 CE, the religion started to decline, with the nobility and rich converting to [[Islam]]. Later on, the rural peasants converted to Islam. Although as per [[Islamic law|Sharia]] forced conversion was not imposed, there was a heavy pressure to convert. Once the dominant religion in Central Asia, there are now less than 200,000 Zoroastrians left.


When the [[Sassanid dynasty]] came into power in 228 CE, they aggressively promoted the [[Zurvanite]] form of Zoroastrianism and in some cases persecuted [[Christianity|Christians]] and [[Manichaeism|Manichaeans]]. When the Sassanids captured territory, they often built fire temples there to promote their religion. The Sassanids were suspicious of Christians not least because of their perceived ties to the Christian [[Roman Empire]]. Thus, those  Christians loyal to the [[List of Patriarchs of Babylon|Patriarchate of Babylon]] — which had broken with Roman Christianity when the latter condemned [[Nestorianism]] — were tolerated and even sometimes favored by the Sassanids. Nestorians lived in large numbers in [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Khuzestan]] during this period.
Many centuries later, a small number of Zoroastrians known as the Parsis fled to Gujarat, India where most are concentrated today. According to the census of India, 2001, they number 69,601, making up 0.006%<ref name=census>Census of India, 2001</ref> of the total population. There's a heavy concentration of Parsis in and around the city of [[Mumbai]]. Due a low birth rate and high rate of emigration, it is speculated that by 2020, they will number approximately 23,000, cease to be labeled as a community, and will be called a tribe.


A form of Zoroastrianism was apparently also the chief religion of pre-Christian [[Caucasus]] region, or at least was prominent there. During periods of Sassanid suzerainty over the Caucasus, the Sassanids made attempts to promote the religion there as well.  
The Zoroastrians in Iran, known as ''Iranis'' have survived centuries of persecution and heavy taxes. They reside chiefly in Yazd, Kerman and Tehran in what is now Iran, numbering 19,800<ref name=census2>Census of Iran, 2006</ref> - 25,500,<ref name=isc>Iran Statistical Centre, 2007</ref> speaking a dialect of Persian very different from modern Persian called [[Dari (Zoroastrian)|Dari]]. Many have migrated to India & Pakistan, preserving their language, heritage, and culture. They are easily distinguishable from the Parsi community.


Well before the 6th century, Zoroastrianism had spread to northern [[China]] via the [[Silk Road]], gaining official status in a number of Chinese states. Remains of Zoroastrian temples have been found in [[Kaifeng]] and [[Zhenjiang]], and according to some scholars, who remained as late as the 1130s, but by the 13th century the religion had faded from prominence in China. However, many scholars who assert the influence of Zoroastrianism (as well as later [[Manicheism]]) on elements of Buddhism, especially in terms of light symbolism.
There are 3,190 Zoroastrians in Canada,<ref name=canada>Census of Canada, 1991</ref> however, the actual number is believed to be much higher. There are about 11,000 Zoroastrians in the United States, 6,000 in Canada, 5,000 in England, 2,700 in Australia and 2,200 in the Persian Gulf nations.<ref name=fezana>Fezana Journal survey</ref> There are also thousands more spread all around the world.
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=== Middle Ages ===
==Religious Texts==
In the 7th century, the [[Islamic conquest of Persia|Sassanid dynasty was overthrown by the Arabs]]. Although some of the later rulers had Zoroastrian shrines destroyed, generally Zoroastrians were included as [[People of the Book]] and allowed to practice their religion. Mass conversions to Islam were not imposed,<ref name="Buillet_1979_???">{{harvnb|Buillet|1978|p=???}}.</ref> in accordance with Islamic law. Though some scholars debate the validity of these claims.<ref>http://www.vohuman.org/Article/Islamic%20era%20histroy%20of%20Zoroastrians%20of%20Iran.htm</ref> . However, there was a slow but steady social pressure to convert.<ref name="Buillet_1979_37.138">{{harvnb|Buillet|1978|p=37,138}}.</ref> The nobility and city-dwellers were the first to convert, with Islam more slowly being accepted among the peasantry and landed gentry.<ref name="Buillet_1979_59">{{harvnb|Buillet|1978|p=59}}.</ref>


Many Zoroastrians fled, among them several groups who eventually migrated to the western shores of the Indian subcontinent, where they finally settled. According to the [[Qissa-i Sanjan]] "Story of Sanjan", the only existing account of the early years of Zoroastrian refugees in India, the immigrants originated from [[Greater Khorasan|(greater) Khorasan]]. The descendants of those and other settlers, who are today known as the [[Parsi]]s, founded the Indian cities of [[Sanjan (Gujarat)|Sanjan]] and [[Navsari]], which are said to have been named after the cities of their origin: [[Sanjan (Khorasan)|Sanjan]] (near [[Merv]], in present-day [[Turkmenistan]]) and the eponymous [[Sari (city)|Sari]] (in modern [[Mazandaran]], [[Iran]]). (Kotwal, 2004)
===Gathas===
{{main|Gathas}}
The ''Gathas'' are the most sacred texts of the Zoroastrian faith, consisting of 17 hymns composed by Zoroaster himself. They were later incorporated into the [[Yasna]], and are identifiable by their chapter names.<ref name=gatha1>Humbach, Helmut (2001). ''[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v10f3/v10f3112a.html Gathas: The texts]''. Encyclopedia Iranica '''10'''.</ref><ref name=gatha2>Malandra, William (2001). ''[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v10f3/v10f3112b.html Gathas: Translations]''. Encyclopedia Iranica '''10'''.</ref>


In the centuries following the fall of the Sassanid Empire, Zoroastrianism began to gradually return to the form it had had under the Achaemenids, and no evidence of what is today called the "Zurvan Heresy" exists beyond the 10th century CE. (Boyce, 2002) Ironically, it was Zurvanism and Zurvan-influenced texts that first reached the west, leading to the supposition that Zoroastrianism was a religion with two deities: Zurvan and Ahura Mazda (the latter being opposed by [[Angra Mainyu]]).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Chapter numbers
! Name of Gatha
! Number of stanzas
! Number of verses & syllable metres
|-
| 28-34
| Ahunavaiti Gatha (cf Ahuna Vairya)
| 100
| 3 verses, 7+9 syllable metre
|-
| 43-45
| Ushtavaiti Gatha 'Having Happiness'
| 66
| 5 verses, 4+7 syllable metre
|-
| 47-50
| Spenta Mainyu Gatha 'Bounteous Spirit'
| 41
| 4 verses, 4+7 syllable metre
|-
| 51
| Vohu Khshathra Gatha 'Good Dominion'
| 22
| 3 verses, 7+7 syllable metre
|-
| 53
| Vahisto Ishti Gatha 'Best Beloved'
| 9
| 4 verses, two of 7+5 and two of 7+5+5 syllables
|}


=== Modern Era ===
===Zend-Avesta===
Today, there are significantly fewer Zoroastrians than there once were. Over the centuries, adherents of the faith have dispersed in all directions, but greater concentrations of Zoroastrians may still be found on the [[Indian subcontinent]] and in Iran.
{{main|Zend-Avesta}}
{{Image|Yasna 28 1.jpg|right|350px|Yasna 28.1}}
The ''Zend-Avesta'', called ''Avesta'' in short, is the prayer-book of Zoroastrians. It is divided into five parts, the ''Yasna'', the ''Vispered'', ''Vendidad'', ''Yashts'', and ''Khordah Avesta''. The prose suggests that it was written after Zoroaster's death.


== Relation to other religions and cultures ==
The Yasna, the principal liturgical book of the Parsees, in 72 chapters (hait-i, ha), contains the texts that are read by the priests at the solemn yasna (Izeshne) ceremony, or the general sacrifice. The Vispered, a minor liturgical work in 24 chapters (karde), is alike in form and substance completely dependent on the Yasna, to which it is a liturgical appendix. Its separate chapters are interpolated in the Yasna in order to produce a modified - or expanded - Yasna ceremony. The Vendidad, the priestly code of the Parsees, contains in 22 chapters (fargard) a kind of dualistic account of the creation, the legend of Yima and the golden age , and in the bulk of the remaining chapters the precepts of religion with regard to the cultivation of the earth, the care of useful animals, the protection of the sacred elements, such as earth, fire and water, the keeping of a man's body from defilement, together with the requisite measures of precaution, elaborate ceremonies of purification, atonements, ecclesiastical expiations ,and so forth. The Yashts, i.e. " songs of praise," in so far as they have not been received already into the Yasna, form a collection by themselves. They contain invocations of separate Izads, or angels, number 21 in all, and are of widely divergent extent and antiquity. The Khordah Avesta, i.e. the Little Avesta, comprises a collection of shorter prayers designed for all believers - the laity included - and adapted for the various occurrences of ordinary life.<ref name="avesta">Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition - ''[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Zend-Avesta Zend-Avesta]''</ref>
Zoroastrianism is uniquely important in the history of religion because of its possible formative links to both [[Western religions|Western]] and [[Eastern religions|Eastern]] religious traditions. As "the oldest of the revealed [[creed]]al religions", Zoroastrianism "probably had more influence on mankind directly or indirectly than any other faith".<ref name="Boyce_1979_p1">{{harvnb|Boyce|1979|p=1}}.</ref>


It has been asserted<ref name="BlackRowley_1987_607b">{{harvnb|Black|Rowley|1987|p=607b}}.</ref><ref name="Duchesne-Guillemin_1988_815">{{harvnb|Duchesne-Guillemin|1988|p=815}}.</ref> that key concepts of [[Zoroastrian eschatology]] and [[demonology]] had influence on the [[Abrahamic religion]]s. However, Boyce<ref name="Boyce_1982_202">e.g. {{harvnb|Boyce|1982|p=202}}.</ref> and other Iranists also tell us that Zoroastrianism itself inherited ideas from other belief systems. As such, Zoroastrianism, like other ''practiced'' religions, accommodates some degree of [[syncretism]]. For example, one of the popular strains within Zoroastrianism considers both good and evil as ''creations'' of God. This relatively recent development is sometimes attributed to influence from Christianity (see [[Angra Mainyu#In present-day Zoroastrianism|Angra Mainyu in present-day Zoroastrianism]] for details), though historically, Orthodox Christianity itself does not adhere to the belief that God created evil. In historical Christian Theology, evil is disobedience to God.
===Other Texts===


Many traits of Zoroastrianism can be traced back to the culture and beliefs of the proto-Indo-Iranian period, and Zoroastrianism consequently shares some elements with the [[historical Vedic religion]] that also has its origins in that era. However, Zoroastrianism was also strongly affected by the later culture of the Iranian [[Heroic Age (literary theory)|Heroic Age]] (1500 BCE onwards), an influence that the Indic religions were not subject to. Nonetheless, scholars have used evidence from the texts of both religious systems to reconstruct the earlier stage of [[Proto-Indo-Iranian religion|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] beliefs and culture. This has also formed attempts to characterise the even earlier [[Proto-Indo-European religion]] and so, for example, determine the process by which [[Dyeus]] became [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]], [[Sabazios]], [[Zeus]], and [[Tyr]]. [[Norse mythology|Norse eschatology]], involving cosmic conflagration by [[Surtr]] during [[Ragnarök]], as well as the death and resurrection of [[Baldr]], may derive from Zoroastrian influence before any Christian influence.
There are other texts which are of religious or semi-religious nature. They were all compiled many centuries later, after the 9th century, with the youngest created in the 17th century. Some claim to contain lost chapters of the Avesta.  


Many aspects of Zoroastrianism are in turn present in the culture and mythologies of the peoples of the [[Greater Iran]], not least because Zoroastrianism, for a thousand years, was a dominant influence on the people of the cultural continent. Even after the rise of Islam and the loss of direct influence, Zoroastrianism remained part of the cultural heritage of the [[Iranian languages|Iranian language]]-speaking world, in part as festivals and customs  but also because [[Ferdowsi]] incorporated a number of the figures and stories from the [[Avesta]] in his epic ''[[Shahnameh|Shāhnāme]]'', which in turn is pivotal to Iranian identity.
The texts in Middle Persian are:


== Religious texts ==
* The Dēnkard ("Acts of Religion")
==== Scripture ====
* The Bundahishn ("Primordial Creation")
{{main|Avesta}}
* The Mēnog-ī Khirad ("Spirit of Wisdom")
The [[Avesta]] is the collection of the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. Although the texts are very old, the compendium as we know it today is essentially the result of a [[redaction]] that is thought to have occurred during the reign of [[Shapur II]] (309–379 CE). However, some portions of the collection have been lost since then, especially after the fall of the [[Sassanid empire]] in 651 CE, after which Zoroastrianism was supplanted by [[Islam]]. The oldest existing copy of an [[Avestan language]] text dates to 1288 CE.
* The Arda Viraf Nāmag ("Book of Arda Viraf")


The most ancient of the texts of the Avesta are in an old or ''Gathic'' Avestan. The majority of the texts are however from a later period: most are probably from the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid era]] (648–330 BCE), with a few being even younger. All the texts are believed to have been transmitted orally for centuries before they found written form, and in existing copies, the Avestan language words are written in ''[[Avestan alphabet|Din dabireh]]'' script, a [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid era]] (226–651 CE) invention.
The Sad Dar ("Hundred Doors or Chapters") is in Mordern Persian and The Rivayats (Traditional Treatises) are in Middle as well as Mordern Persian.


The various texts of the Avesta are generally divided into topical categories, but these are by no means fixed or canonical. Some scholars prefer to place the five categories in two groups, one liturgical and the other general.
==Angelology and Demonology==
* The ''[[Yasna]]'', the primary liturgical collection. The ''Yasna'' includes the ''[[Gathas]]'', which are thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself.
* The ''[[Visparad]]'', a collection of supplements to the ''Yasna''.
* The [[Yasht|''Yasht''s]], hymns in honor of the divinities.
* The ''[[Vendidad]]'', describes the various forms of evil spirits and ways to confound them.
* Shorter texts and prayer collections, the five ''nyaishes'' "worship, praise", the ''siroze'' "thirty days" (see [[Zoroastrian calendar]]) and the ''afringans'' "blessings". Some of these fragments are collected in the ''Khorda Avesta'', the "Little Avesta", which is the collection of texts for daily lay (as opposed to priestly) use.


==== Other texts ====
There are certain types of Angels, Demons, and other supernatural entities in the faith. Daevas, Yazatas, Amensha Spentas, and Ahuras are these types of entities.
The texts of the Avesta are complemented by several secondary works of religious or semi-religious nature, which although not sacred and not used as scripture, have a significant influence on Zoroastrian doctrine. They are all of a much later date — in general from between the 9th and 12th centuries — with the youngest treatises dating to the 17th century. Some of these works quote passages that are believed to be from lost sections of the Avesta.


The most important of these secondary texts (of which there some 60 in all) are:
===Spenta Mainyu===
* The ''[[Denkard|Dēnkard]]'' "Acts of Religion" in Middle Persian
* The ''[[Bundahishn]]'' "Primordial Creation" in Middle Persian
* The ''[[Menog-i Khrad|Mēnog-ī Khirad]]'' "Spirit of Wisdom" in Middle Persian
* The ''[[Book of Arda Viraf|Arda Viraf Nāmag]]'' "Book of Arda Viraf" in Middle Persian
* The ''[[Sad Dar]]'' "Hundred Doors or Chapters" in Modern Persian
* The ''Rivayat''s or traditional treatises in Middle and Modern Persian


The use of the expression ''Zend-Avesta'' to refer to the Avesta, or the use of ''Zend'' as the name of a language or script, are relatively recent and popular mistakes. The word ''Zend'' or ''Zand'', meaning "commentary, translation", refers to supplementaries in Middle Persian not intended for use as theological texts by themselves but for religious instruction of the (by then) non-Avestan-speaking public. In contrast, the texts of the Avesta proper remained sacrosanct and continued to be recited in Avestan — which was considered a [[sacred language]].  
{{Image|Mainyu.jpg|right|300px|An artist's conception of Spenta Mainyu}}
Spenta Mainyu is the spirit who's in direct antagonism with Angra Mainyu. Considered an Amesha Spenta, the relation between Ahura Mazda and Spenta Mainyu remains subtle and elusive, in the Avesta as well as the Gathas. Ahura Mazda is replaced with Spenta Mainyu in the Gathas, which regard him as Angra Mainyu's twin, both representing the good and evil aspects of nature respectively. An analysis of the Gathas and the Avesta conclude that Spenta Mainyu is not to be considered as a separate being, but as a divine attribute of Ahura Mazda. Therefore, Spenta Mainyu is either used along with Ahura Mazda as his epithet, or presented alone to represent him, such as ''his majesty'' is used to represent a King.


In a general sense, all the secondary texts mentioned above are also included in the ''Zend'' rubric since they too often include commentaries on the [[Avesta]] and on the religion.
Sevaral passages in the Avesta speak of good creations belonging to Spenta Mainyu, such as the stars. Unlike Ahura Mazda and the Amesha Spentas, Spenta Mainyu does not receive homage or invocation.


== Principal beliefs ==
===Amesha Spentas===
[[Ahura Mazda]] is the beginning and the end, the creator of everything which can and cannot be seen, the Eternal, the Pure and the only Truth. In the [[Gathas]], the most sacred texts of Zoroastrianism were thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, the prophet acknowledged devotion to no other divinity besides Ahura Mazda.
''For more information, see the [[Zoroastrianism/Catalogs|catalogs subpage]]''


''Daena'' (''din'' in modern [[Persian language|Persian]]) is the eternal Law, whose order was revealed to humanity through the ''Mathra-Spenta'' 'Holy Words'. ''Daena'' has been used to mean religion, faith, law, even as a translation for the Hindu and Buddhist term [[Dharma]], religious duty, but which can also mean social order, right conduct, or simply virtue. The metaphor of the 'path' of ''Daena'' is represented in Zoroastrianism by the muslin undershirt ''Sudra'', the 'Good/Holy Path', and the 72-thread ''[[Kushti]]'' girdle, the "Pathfinder".
''Amesha Spentas'' are a particular type of divine class known as "Bounteous Immortals". They're the divine "sparks" created by Ahura Mazda, as expressions and aspects of creation, that are each representative of one aspect of that creation. The Yazatas, who are lesser in league, in turn, assist the Amesha Spentas. The Amesha Spentas are each responsible for a special domain. They're often compared to Christian archangels, and fight for truth and justice. Each Amesha Spenta has an archenemy, one of the Daevas.


''Daena'' should not be confused with the fundamental principle ''[[asha]]'' (Vedic ''rta''), the equitable law of the universe, which governed the life of the ancient Indo-Iranians. For these, ''asha'' was the course of everything observable, the motion of the planets and astral bodies, the progression of the seasons, the pattern of daily nomadic herdsman life, governed by regular metronomic events such as sunrise and sunset. All physical creation (''geti'') was thus determined to run according to a master plan — inherent to Ahura Mazda — and violations of the order (''druj'') were violations against creation, and thus violations against Ahura Mazda. This concept of ''asha'' versus the ''druj'' should not be confused with the good-versus-evil battle evident in western religions, for although both forms of opposition express moral conflict, the ''asha'' versus ''druj'' concept is more subtle and nuanced, representing, for instance, chaos (that opposes order); or "uncreation", evident as natural decay (that opposes creation); or more simply "the lie" (that opposes truth, righteousness). Moreover, in his role as the one uncreated creator of all, Ahura Mazda is not the creator of ''druj'' which is "nothing", anti-creation, and thus (likewise) uncreated. Thus, in Zoroaster's revelation, Ahura Mazda was perceived to be the creator of only the good (Yasna 31.4), the "supreme benevolent providence" (Yasna 43.11), that will ultimately triumph (Yasna 48.1).
The Amesha Spentas are -  


In this schema of ''asha'' versus ''druj'', mortal beings (humans and animals both) play a critical role, for they too are created. Here, in their lives, they are active participants in the conflict and it is their ''duty'' to defend order, which would decay without counter''action''. Throughout the [[Gathas]], Zoroaster emphasizes deeds and actions; and accordingly [[asceticism]] is frowned upon in Zoroastrianism. In later Zoroastrianism, this was explained as fleeing from the experiences of life, which was the very purpose that the ''urvan'' (most commonly translated as the 'soul') was sent into the mortal world to collect. The avoidance of any aspect of life, which includes the avoidance of the pleasures of life, is a shirking of the responsibility and duty to oneself, one's ''urvan'', and one's family and social obligations.
* Ameretat


Thus, central to Zoroastrianism is the emphasis on moral choice, to choose between the responsibility and duty for which one is in the mortal world, or to give up this duty and so facilitate the work of ''druj''. Similarly, [[predestination]] is rejected in Zoroastrian teaching. Humans bear responsibility for all situations they are in, and in the way they act to one another. Reward, punishment, happiness and grief all depend on how individuals live their life.
* Armaiti


In Zoroastrianism, good transpires for those who do righteous deeds. Those who do evil have themselves to blame for their ruin. Zoroastrian morality is then to be summed up in the simple phrase, "good thoughts, good words, good deeds" (''Humata'', ''Hukhta'', ''Hvarshta'' in [[Avestan]]), for it is through these that ''asha'' is maintained and ''druj'' is kept in check.
* Asha vahishta


Through accumulation, several other beliefs were introduced to the religion, that in some instances supersede those expressed in the Gathas. In the late 19th century, the moral and immoral forces came to be represented by ''Spenta Mainyu'' and its Satanic [[antithesis]] ''[[Angra Mainyu]]'', the 'good spirit' and 'evil spirit' emanations of Ahura Mazda respectively. Although the names are old, this opposition is a modern western-influenced development popularized by [[Martin Haug]] in the 1880s, and was in effect a realignment of the precepts of [[Zurvanism]] (Zurvanite Zoroastrianism), which had invented a ''third'' deity, ''Zurvan'', in order to explain a mention of twinship (''Yasna'' 30.3) between the moral and immoral. Although Zurvanism had died out by the 10th century, the critical question of the "twin brothers" mentioned in ''Yasna'' 30.3 remained, and Haug's explanation provided a convenient  defence against Christian missionaries who disparaged the [[Parsi]]s (Indian Zoroastrians) for their 'dualism'. Haug's concept was subsequently disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, thus corroborating Haug's theory and the idea became so popular that it is now almost universally accepted as doctrine.
* Haurvatat


[[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid era]] (648–330 BCE) Zoroastrianism developed the abstract concepts of heaven, hell, personal and final judgement, all of which are only alluded to in the [[Gathas]]. ''Yasna'' 19 (which has only survived in a [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid era]] (226–650 CE) ''Zend'' commentary on the ''[[Ahuna Vairya]]'' invocation), prescribes a Path to Judgement known as the ''Chinvat Peretum'' or ''[[Chinvat bridge]]'' (''cf:'' [[As-Sirāt]] in Islam), which all souls had to cross, and judgement (over thoughts, words, deeds performed during a lifetime) was passed as they were doing so. However, the Zoroastrian personal judgement is not final. At the end of time, when evil is finally defeated, all souls will be ultimately reunited with their [[Fravashi]]. Thus, Zoroastrianism can be said to be a universalist religion with respect to salvation.
* Khshathra vairya


In addition, and strongly influenced by Babylonian and Akkadian practices, the Achaemenids popularized shrines and temples, hitherto alien forms of worship. In the wake of Achaemenid expansion, shrines were constructed throughout the empire and particularly influenced the role of [[Mithra]], [[Aredvi Sura Anahita]], [[Vahram|Verethregna]] and [[Tishtrya]], all of which, in addition to their original (proto-)Indo-Iranian functions, now also received Perso-Babylonian functions.
* Vohu Manah


Although the worship of images would eventually fall out of favour (and be replaced by the iconoclastic [[fire temple]]s), the lasting legacy of the Achaemenids was a vast, complex hierarchy of [[Yazata|''Yazatas'']] (modern Zoroastrianism's Angels) that were now not just evident in the religion, but firmly established, not least because the divinities received dedications in the [[Zoroastrian calendar]], thus ensuring that they were frequently invoked. Additionally, the [[Amesha Spenta]], the six originally abstract terms that were regarded as direct emanations or aspects or "divine sparks" of Ahura Mazda, came to be personified as an archangel retinue.
===Yazatas===
''For more information, see the [[Zoroastrianism/Catalogs|catalogs subpage]]''


== Adherents ==
''Yazata'' is the Avestan term for an entity that is worthy of worship. The Yazatas are collectively represent the good powers of Ahura Mazda, who is the greatest of the Yazatas.<ref name=yazata>Boyce, Mary, ''"Aməša Spənta"'', Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. '''1''', New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.</ref>
Small Zoroastrian communities may be found all over the world, with a continuing concentration in Western India and Central Iran. Zoroastrians of the diaspora are primarily located in [[Great Britain]] and the former British colonies — in particular [[Canada]] and [[Australia]] — but the [[United States]] has become a preferred destination in recent decades. Zoroastrian communities are comprised of two main groups of people: those of Indian Zoroastrian background, who are known as [[Parsis]] (or Parsees), and those of Iranian background.


==== In Greater Iran ====
The Yazatas have different powers and characteristics. For instance, [[Aredvi Sura Anahita]] is a divinity of waters. [[Sarosh]], [[Mithra]], and [[Rashnu]] are the guardians of the [[Chivnat bridge]], through which all souls must pass.<ref name=yazatas>Boyce, Mary (1969), "On Mithra's Part in Zoroastrianism", ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'' '''32''' (1): 10-34.</ref>


Communities exist in Tehran, as well as in [[Yazd]], [[Kerman]] and [[Kermanshah]], where many still speak an Iranian language distinct from the usual [[Persian language|Persian]]. They call their language [[Dari (Zoroastrian)|Dari]] (not to be confused with the [[Dari (of Afghanistan)|Dari of Afghanistan]]). Their language is also called ''Gabri'' or ''Behdinan'' (literally "Of the Good Religion"). Sometimes their language is named for the cities in which it is spoken, ''Yazdi'' or ''Kermani''. Iranian Zoroastrians were historically called [[Gabr|''Gabr''s]], originally without a pejorative connotation but in the present-day derogatorily applied to all non-Muslims.
The Yazatas are often compared to Christian angels.


There is some interest among Iranians, as well as people in various Central Asian countries such as [[Tajikistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]], in their ancient Zoroastrian heritage; some people in these countries take notice of their Zoroastrian past. At the instigation of the government of [[Tajikistan]], [[UNESCO]] declared 2003 a year to celebrate the "3000th anniversary of Zoroastrian culture", with special events throughout the world.
===Ahuras===


==== In the Indian Subcontinent ====
''Ahuras'' are a class of divinities, similar to the Vedic concept of [[Asura]]. Of these, three divinities are repeatedly identified as Ahuric. These three are [[Ahura Mazda]], [[Mithra]] and [[Apam Napat]], and hence known as the "Ahuric triad"<ref name=boyce>Boyce, Mary. ''Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices''. (1985). '''252''' pp. ISBN 0415239028''</ref>* Boyce, Mary.  ''Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices.'' (1985). 252 pp.  ISBN 0415239028</ref>, of which Ahura Mazda is the mightiest of all (''Yasna'' 33.11).
{{main|Parsi}}


Following the fall of the [[Sassanid Empire]] in 651, many Zoroastrians migrated, and among them were several groups who ventured to [[Gujarat]], on the western shores of the [[Indian subcontinent]], where they finally settled. The descendants of those refugees are today known as the [[Parsi]]s. The year of arrival on the subcontinent cannot be precisely established and Parsi legend and tradition assigns various dates to the event.
===Daevas===


On the Indian subcontinent, these Zoroastrians enjoyed tolerance and even admiration from other religious communities. From the 19th century onward, the Parsis gained a reputation for their education and widespread influence in all aspects of society, partly due to the divisive strategy of [[British Empire|British colonialism]] which favored certain minorities. As such, Parsis are generally more affluent than other Indians and are stereotypically viewed as among the most Anglicised and "Westernised" of the various minority groups. They have also played an instrumental role in the economic development of the region over many decades; several of the best-known business conglomerates of India are run by Parsi-Zoroastrians, including the [[Tata]], [[Godrej]], and [[Wadia]] families.
''Daeva'' is the [[Avestan language|Avestan]] term for supernatural entities with disagreeable characteristics. Daevas used to be the Gods worshiped by the pre-Zoroastrian Persians, in their polytheistic faith. After Zoroaster preached his revelations, their status was diminished to that of evil entities, possibly during the Achaemenid era. In the Gathas, they're termed as false Gods. In the Avesta, Deavas are noxious characters that promote chaos.<ref name=daeva>Dhalla, Maneckji Nusservanji - ''Zoroastrian Civilization: From the Earliest Times to the Downfall of the Last Zoroastrian Empire 651 A.D.'', ISBN 1430493119</ref> Each Daeva fights a particular Amesha Spenta.


==== Demographics ====
The Daevas are -
In 1996, the number of Zoroastrians worldwide was estimated to be "at most 200,000".<ref name="Melton_1996_837">{{harvnb|Melton|1996|p=837}}.</ref><ref name="cf_EliadeCouliano_1991_254">''cf.'' {{harvnb|Elidae|Couliano|1991|p=254}}.</ref> India's 2001 Census found 69,601 [[Parsi]] Zoroastrians. In [[Pakistan]] they number 5,000, mostly living in [[Karachi]]. [[Anglo America]] is thought to be home to 18,000–25,000 Zoroastrians of both [[South Asian]] and [[Iran]]ian background. Iran's figures of Zoroastrians have ranged widely; the last census (1974) before the [[Iranian Revolution|revolution of 1979]] revealed 21,400 Zoroastrians.


Few, if any, adherents remain in the [[Central Asia]]n regions that were once considered the traditional stronghold of Zoroastrianism, i.e. [[Bactria]] (see also [[Balkh]]) which is in Northern Afghanistan, [[Sogdiana]], [[Margiana]], and other areas closest to Zoroaster's homeland (for the location of Zoroaster's homeland, see [[Zoroaster#Place]]).
* Aesma Daeva


In the Indian census of 2001, the Parsis numbered 69,601, representing about 0.006% of the total population of India, with a concentration in and around the city of [[Mumbai]] (previously known as Bombay). Due to a low birth rate and high rate of emigration, demographic trends project that by 2020 the Parsis will number only about 23,000 or 0.002% of the total population of India. The Parsis will then cease to be called a community and will be labelled a "tribe".
* Aka Manah


==== Noted Zoroastrians ====
* Indra (not to be confused with the Vedic Indra)
:''For a list of Zoroastrians with articles, see [[List of Zoroastrians]] and [[:Category:Zoroastrians|Category:Zoroastrians]].''


Noted [[Parsi]]s include the pioneering Indian industrialist and philanthropist [[Jamshedji Tata]]; the industrialist and founder of Indian Civil aviation [[J. R. D. Tata]]; [[Indian independence movement|Indian political activists]] [[Pherozeshah Mehta]], [[Dadabhai Naoroji]] and [[Bhikaiji Cama]]; conductor [[Zubin Mehta]] and rock artist [[Freddie Mercury]] (Farrokh Bulsara); British actor and Film Producer [[Ray Panthaki]]; nuclear scientist [[Homi J. Bhabha]], the similarly named philosopher [[Homi Bhabha|Homi K. Bhabha]]; Field Marshal [[Sam Manekshaw]], author and screenwriter [[Sooni Taraporevala]] (of the films ''Salaam Bombay'' and ''Mississippi Masala''), authors [[Rohinton Mistry]] and [[Bapsi Sidhwa]]. Parsis famed for their philanthropy include [[Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy]] and the eponymous [[Cowasji Jehangir Readymoney]], both of whom were knighted for their munificence. The [[India]]n industrial families [[Tata family]], [[Godrej family]] and [[Wadia family]] are also of [[Parsi]] Zoroastrian background. Noted members of the more recently arrived [[Irani]] community include [[Bollywood]] director [[Ardeshir Irani]] and cricketer [[Ronnie Irani]]. Ronnie Screwvala, the noted film producer, owns UTV Motion Pictures.
* Nanghaithya


Noted Iranian Zoroastrians include Dr. [[Farhang Mehr]], former deputy prime minister of [[Iran]], [[Boston University]] professor emeritus, longtime activist for religious freedom, and subject of the biography ''"Triumph Over Discrimination"'' by [[Lylah M. Alphonse]].
* Saurva


Notable converts to Zoroastrianism include Swedish artist and author [[Alexander Bard]].
* Tawrich


== Bibliography ==
* Zarich
;References
{{reflist|3}}


;Works cited
==Worship & Rituals==
{{Image|Fire Temple Yazd.jpg|right|350px|A Fire Temple in Yazd, Iran}}
The Zoroastrians have often been described as 'fire worshipers'. However, this is quite false, as Zoroastrians use fire as a purifying agent, which signifies Ahura Mazda's purity. Use of fire as a purifying agent is central to Zoroastrianism. Worship usually takes place inside a [[Fire Temple]], five times a day. Mordern Zoroastrians continue to maintain the fire ritually, and the fire is centrally placed in the temple. Priests cover their mouths with cloth in order to avoid contaminating the fire. Worshipers wash themselves before entering the temple, bringing offerings of sandalwood and money, in turn, they receive ashes which they rub on their faces.<ref name=worship1>Brodd, Jefferey - ''World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery'', ISBN 0884897257</ref>
{{Image|Zoroastrian Fire.jpg|left|200px|Fire represents Ahura Mazda's purity}}


* {{citation|editor-last=Black|editor-first=Matthew|editor2-last=Rowley|editor2-first=H. H.|title=Peake's Commentary on the Bible|year=1982|publisher=Nelson|location=New York|id=ISBN 0-415-05147-9}}
===The inner ceremonies===
* {{citation|last=Boyce|first=Mary|title=Textual sources for the study of Zoroastrianism|location=Manchester|publisher=Manchester UP|year=1984|id=ISBN 0-226-06930-3}}
* {{citation|last=Boyce|first=Mary|title=Zoroastrianism: A Shadowy but Powerful Presence in the Judaeo-Christian World|location=London|publisher=William's Trust|year=1987}}
* {{citation|last=Boyce|first=Mary|title=Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices|publisher=Routledge|location=London|year=1979|id=ISBN 0-415-23903-6}}
* {{citation|last=Boyce|first=Mary|title=The History of Zoroastrianism|volume=1|year=1975|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|id=ISBN 90-04-10474-7 (repr. 1996)}}
* {{citation|last=Boyce|first=Mary|title=The History of Zoroastrianism|volume=2|year=1982|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|id=ISBN 90-04-06506-7 (repr. 1997)}}
* {{citation|last=Boyce|first=Mary|chapter=Ahura Mazdā|title=Encyclopaedia Iranica|location=New York|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|year=1983|volume=1}} pages 684–687
* {{citation|last=Bulliet|first=Richard W.|title=Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period: An Essay in Quantitative History|year=1979|location=Cambridge|publisher=Harvard UP|id=ISBN 0-674-17035-0}}
* {{citation|last=Carroll|first=Warren H.|year=1985|title=Founding Of Christendom: History Of Christendom|volume=1|publisher=Illinois UP|location=Urbana|id=ISBN 0-931888-21-2 (repr. 2004)}}
* {{citation|last=Clark|first=Peter|title=Zoroastrianism. An Introduction to an Ancient Faith|location=Brighton|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|year=1998|id=ISBN 1-898723-78-8}}
* {{citation|last=Dhalla|first=Maneckji Nusservanji|publisher=OUP|location=New York|year=1938| title=History of Zoroastrianism}}
* {{citation|last=Duchesne-Guillemin|first=Jacques|chapter=Zoroastrianism|title=Encyclopedia Americana|location=Danbury|publisher=Grolier|year=1988|volume=29}} pages 813–815
* {{citation|last=Duchesne-Guillemin|first=Jacques|chapter=Zoroastrianism: Relation to other religions|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|edition=Online|year=2006|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9207|accessdate=2006-05-31}}
* {{citation|last=Eliade|first=Mircea|last2=Couliano|first2=Ioan P.|year=1991|title=The Eliade Guide to World Religions|location=New York|publisher=Harper Collins}}
* {{citation|last=Kellens|first=Jean|chapter=Avesta|title=Encyclopaedia Iranica|volume=3|location=New York|publisher=Routledge and Kegan Paul}} pages 35-44.
* {{cite book|last=King|first=Charles William|year=1887|title=Gnostics and their Remains Ancient and Mediaeval|publisher=Bell & Daldy|location=London|id=ISBN 0-7661-0381-1 (repr. 1998)}}
* {{citation|last=Melton|first=J. Gordon|year=1996|title=Encyclopedia of American Religions|location=Detroit|publisher=Gale Research}}
* {{citation|last=Malandra|first=William W.|title=An Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion. Readings from the Avesta and Achaemenid Inscriptions|location=Minneapolis|publisher=U. Minnesota Press|year=1983|id=ISBN 0-8166-1114-9}}
* {{citation|last=Malandra|first=William W.|year=2005|chapter=Zoroastrianism: Historical Review|title=Encyclopaedia Iranica|location=New York|publisher=iranica.com|chapter-url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/ot_grp9/ot_zorhist_20051007.html}}
* {{citation|last=Moulton|first=James Hope|title=The Treasure of the Magi: A Study of Modern Zoroastrianism|publisher=OUP|location=London|year=1917|id=1-564-59612-5 (repr. 1997)}}
* {{citation|last=Russell|first=James R.|title=Zoroastrianism in Armenia (Harvard Iranian Series)|location=Oxford|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1987|id=ISBN 0-674-96850-6}}
* {{citation|editor-last=Simpson|editor-first=John A.|editor2-last=Weiner|editor2-first=Edmund S.|chapter=Zoroastrianism|title=Oxford English Dictionary|location=London|publisher=Oxford UP|year=1989|edition=2nd|id=ISBN 0-19-861186-2}}
*{{citation|last=Stolze|first=Franz|title=Die Achaemenidischen und Sasanidischen Denkmäler und Inschriften von Persepolis, Istakhr, Pasargadae, Shâpûr|publisher=A. Asher|location=Berlin|year=1882}}
* {{citation|last=Zaehner|first=Robert Charles|title=The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism|location=London|publisher=Phoenix Press|year=1961|id=ISBN 1-84212-165-0}}


== Further reading ==
The most important inner ceremony is the [[Yasna]]. The Yasna can only be performed by ritually purified priests in Iran and India. It contains 72 chapters of text and can only be performed in the morning when the sun is rising. The ceremony takes place in the inner sanctuary, the ''pawi'', and only ritually purified priests may enter the ''pawi''. The whole ceremony takes two hours to celebrate. The Zoroastrian priesthood is adamant that without the Yasna, the whole world would collapse, and Angra Mainyu's forces would be victorious.<ref name="worship">Clark, Peter - ''Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to an Ancient Faith'', ISBN 1898723788</ref>


* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/zoroastrian/ BBC World Service | Zoroastrianism]
The other two important Zoroastrian ceremonies are the [[Vendidad]] and [[Visperad]]. The Vendidad is a nocturnal version of the Yasna with additional material added from the Zend-Avesta book of the same name. The Visperad is a combination of the Yasna and Vendidad.<ref name="worship">Clark, Peter - ''Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to an Ancient Faith'', ISBN 1898723788</ref>
* [http://www.avesta.org/ Avesta.org] contains further information on Zoroastrianism
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Zoroastrianism/ Dmoz.org | Religion and Spirituality | Zoroastrianism] a list of Zoroastrian organizations


===Afrinagan - The outer ceremony===


{{DEFAULTSORT:%%key}}
The Afrinagan is open to all audiences. It is suitably performed in a clean area (such as a house). In the Afrinagan, Ahura Mazda is praised for his blessings upon the world. Fruit, wine, milk, eggs, flowers, and water form part of the ritual, as well as the ever-present fire. The Afrinagan is generally performed by two priests, ''zot'' and ''raspi'', but other qualified priests may also perform. It is appropriate to wash and dress before reciting the prayers. The Afrinagan is not restricted to Fire Temples in Iran and India.<ref name="worship">Clark, Peter - ''Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to an Ancient Faith'', ISBN 1898723788</ref>
[[Category:Zoroastrianism| ]]<!-- Note that the entire *Category*:Zoroastrianism is already a sub-cat under cat:Indo-European, cat:Eastern culture and various other categories.-->
 
[[Category:Monotheism]]
==Funeral ceremonies==
[[Category:CZ Live]]
 
[[Category:Stub Articles]]
{{Image|Tower of Silence.jpg|right|350px|Tower of Silence, Yazd, Iran}}  
[[Category:Needs Workgroup]]
There funeral ceremonies are divided into two types: Those that relate to disposal of the body, and those that relate to the good of the soul. For a proper appreciation of the ceremonies of the first kind, one has to look to the Zoroastrian ideas of sanitation, segregation, purification, and cleanliness, as expressed in the Vendidad.
 
When a person appears to be close to death, the family members call for two or more priests, who make the dying person recite the ''Patete'', which is for repentance of all sins. If the dying person is unable to do so, the priests may recite it, although it is preferable for the dying person to recite it without the help of priests. A short while before death, the dying person is sometimes administered a few drops of [[Haoma]]. The clothes are washed and destroyed by the family members, after the death. The corpse then enters the stage of ''Druj-i Nasu'', when it is forbidden to touch the corpse. Two purified members of the family then cover the corpse with sheets (except the face). A dog (preferably with a spot on top of each eye) is made to see the corpse. A priest then recites the Avesta, as the family members proceed to take the corpse to the ''Towers of Silence'', where vultures proceed to devour the corpse. It is essential that the corpse be exposed to the sun, and it is forbidden to carry it to the Towers of silence during the night.
 
It is believed that the soul remains in the world for around three days. In this state it sees before itself a picture of its past deeds. If it is the soul of a pious person, it sees a beautiful picture of its deeds in the past life and feels happy and joyful. If it is the soul of a wicked person, it sees a horrible picture of its past deeds and shudders and feels unhappy at the sight and feels at a loss where to go. Hence, ceremonies for the good of the soul are performed. Srosh is the angel who guides a soul to the afterlife. The ''Srosh Baj'' is recited, to guide the soul. An Afrinagan ceremony is performed by two priests in honour of Srosh. The Yasna and Vendidad are recited in nearby fire temples. These ceremonies, and more, continue for three days, until the soul has departed from the world.<ref name=funeral>Modi, Jivanji Jamshedji, ''[http://www.avesta.org/ritual/funeral.htm The Funeral Ceremonies of the Parsees - Their origin and explanation]'' ('''fourth''' edition)</ref>
 
==Similarities to other faiths & influence on others==
 
{{Image|Mithras slaying the Bull.jpg|right|350px|Mithras slaying the Bull}}
Zoroastrianism has many striking similarities to faiths around it. It incorporates many features of both [[Abrahamic]] as well as [[Dharmaic]] faiths. It incorporates a high degree of [[syncretism]]. For instance, it's been speculated that Zoroastrian concepts of [[Zoroastrian eschatology|eschatology]] and [[demonology]] had influence on Abrahamic religions. Zoroastrianism has many concepts similar to the [[ancient Vedic religion]], such as the veneration of fire.<ref name=boyce /><ref name=similarities2>Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1988), ''"Zoroastrianism", Encyclopedia Americana'', vol. 29, Danbury: Grolier pages '''813–815'''</ref> The similarities between the [[yasna]] and the Hindu [[yajna]] are striking, as both rituals are performed during sunrise, and both have similar names.
 
A mystery religion developed in the [[Roman Empire]], influenced heavily by Zoroastrianism. Roman soldiers syncretised worship of Mithra with their rituals, and this developed into the [[Mithraic mysteries]]. The worship of Mithras became popular all over the Roman Empire, and temples dedicated to Mithras have been discovered across the European continent, including England. Mithraism was so popular that Mithra was eventually declared as ''Sol Invictus'' - The Unconquered Sun God. After the edicts of Theodosius I banning paganism, the religion slowly declined and eventually vanished.<ref name=mithras> Beck, Roger, ''The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire'', London: Oxford University Press</ref>
 
Some scholars maintain that the Zoroastrian ritual of praying five times daily influenced Islam<ref name=worship1>Brodd, Jefferey - ''World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery'', ISBN 0884897257</ref>, while Muslims state that all existing and extinct religions were similar to Islam initially, created by prophets similar to Zoroaster and Muhammad.
 
==Festivals==
 
The most important Zoroastrian festivals celebrated are - ''Nouruz'' and ''Khodad Sal''.
 
The New Year - Nouruz is celebrated on the day of the Spring equinox around March 20/21. Nouruz is still celebrated in Iran, by the [[Shi'a]] Muslim Persians. Traditionally in Iran a table is set up with a display of the seven creations.
 
''Khodad Sal'' is the celebration of the birthday of the prophet Zoroaster.
 
Other important days of devotion and festivity are:
 
* Sadeh
* Parab of Aban (to venerate water)
* Adur (to venerate fire)
* Tirgan
* Mehergan
* Other prominent festivals and celebrations are Yalda (commemorating of the longest night) and death anniversary (Zarathust no diso) of Zarathushtra.
* Gahambars - 6 seasonal festivals
 
==Zurvanism==
{{main|Zurvanism}}
''Zurvanism'' is considered to be the biggest heresy within Zoroastrianism. Zurvanism was a sect of Zoroastrianism which acknowledged a superior deity to Ahura Mazda, [[Zurvan]]. According to the belief, Zurvan was the first being in the universe, who gave birth to two sons, Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu. Zurvan promised to give his firstborn, Ahura Mazda, sovereignty over the world for 9,000 years, and Angra Mainyu sovereignty for the next 9,000 years. Ahura Mazda stood in the light, while Angra Mainyu reeked of darkness. From there onwards, the normal history of Zoroastrianism takes place.
 
Zurvanism was the sect promoted by the [[Sassanid Empire]] of Persia, and it's believed that Zurvan was the chief polytheistic deity of the Royal family of the Empire, prior to their conversion to Zoroastrianism. Evidence suggests that Zurvanism was very popular in the western half of Iran during the height of the Sassanid Empire. Most references on Zurvanism have been purged, and Zurvan followers were the first to convert to Islam after the [[Islamic conquest of Persia|conquest of Persia]].<ref name="zurvan">Jong, Albert de - ''Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature'', page '''330''', ISBN 9004108440</ref>
 
==Famous Zoroastrians==
:''For more information, see the [[Zoroastrianism/Catalogs|catalogs subpage]].
 
==Further reading==
''See the [[Zoroastrianism/Bibliography|Bibliography subpage]]''
 
==Notes==
<!-- {{reflist|2}} -->
<references>
 
<ref name=Mazda>
[[Wikipedia:Ahura Mazda|Ahura Mazda]] (aka Oromasdes, Ohrmazd, Ormazd, Ormusd, Hoormazd, etc) is the most frequently invoked spirit in the [[Wikipedia:Yasna|Yasna]], the liturgy of [[Wikipedia:Avesta|Avesta]] (Old Iranian) texts for Zoroastrianism. The meaning of the word Ahura is "lord", and that of Mazda is "wisdom".
</ref>
 
</references>

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© Image: Bob Azadi
The Faravahar - the main symbol of the Zoroastrian faith

Zoroastrianism[1] is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra, Zartosht). Mazdaism[2] is the religion which recognises Ahura Mazda's supreme authority as the one God. The Zoroastrian name of the religion is Mazdayasna.[3]

According to the teachings of Zoroaster, the universe is in a struggle between good and evil. The forces of good are led by Ahura Mazda, the wise Lord, and the forces of evil are led by Angra Mainyu, the destructive principle.

Beliefs and Practices

Beliefs

  • Ahura Mazda[4] is the one universal and transcendental God, the uncreated creator, to whom all worship is directed.
  • Ahura Mazda's creation — evident as asha (truth and order) is the antithesis of chaos, evident as druj (falsehood and disorder). The whole universe is involved in the resulting conflict. Humanity plays an important role in the conflict.
  • Ahura Mazda will prevail. All souls, including those initially banished, will be reunited with Ahura Mazda.
  • The malevolent are represented by Angra Mainyu, the "destructive principle".
  • The benevolent are represented by Ahura Mazda's Spenta Mainyu, the "bounteous principle".
  • Ahura Mazda emanated six divine "sparks", the Amesha Spentas ("Bounteous Immortals"), as expressions and aspects of creation, that are each representative of one aspect of that creation. A league of lesser principles, the Yazatas, each "Worthy of Worship" and each again a representative of a moral or physical aspect of creation, in turn assist the Amesha Spentas.

Practices

  • Good thoughts, good words, and good deeds result in happiness and prevent chaos. Free will to choose between good and evil is an important aspect.
  • Fire represents Ahura Mazda's purity. All prayer is directed to a source of fire.
  • Monasticism in all forms is rejected.
  • Zoroastrians do not proselytize.
  • The traditional wing of Zoroastrianism discourages and does not recognize inter-faith marriages. A child must have two Zoroastrian parents for the initiation ceremony to take place.
  • The majority of Zoroastrians, particularly the Parsis[5] of India, do not accept converts. However, the council of Mobeds in Tehran, Iran, allows conversion.

History

Founding & life of Zoroaster

For more information, see: Zoroaster.

The religion was founded by Zarathushtra (Zoroaster in Greek; Zarthosht in India and Persia). Conservative Zoroastrians assign a date of 6000 BCE to the founding of the religion; other followers estimate 600 BCE. Historians and religious scholars generally date his life sometime between 1500 and 1000 BCE on the basis of his style of writing. The date of birth of Zoroaster is very controversial. It is known that after Alexander's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire, the Greeks imposed an "age of Alexander" calendar, which Zoroastrian priests replaced with an "age of Zoroaster" calendar. It was estimated that he was born 258 years before Alexander, hence the date of 600 BCE was accepted.[6]

(CC) Photo: Mark Schweizer
Zoroaster on a plaque in Atashkadeh Chak-Nak near Yazd, Iran

Yasna 9 & 17 state that Zoroaster's home was near the river Ditya in Airyanəm Vaējah, speculated to be in Central Asia, which was at that time dominated by Iranian tribes. He was born into a Bronze Age culture with a polytheistic religion, which included animal sacrifice and the ritual use of intoxicants. This religion was quite similar to the early forms of Hinduism of the Indus Valley. Zoroaster's birth and early life are little documented. What is known is recorded in the Gathas - the core of the Avesta, which contains hymns thought to be composed by Zoroaster himself. Born into the Spitama clan, he worked as a priest. He was a family man, with a wife, three sons and three daughters. Zoroaster rejected the religion of the Bronze Age Iranians with their many gods and oppressive class structure, in which the Karvis and Karapans (princes and priests) controlled the ordinary people. According to western scholars until recently, he also opposed animal sacrifices and the use of the hallucinogenic Haoma plant (possibly a species of ephedra) in rituals. However, as the drink is a central part of the faith, this opinion has been thoroughly revised.[7]

Zoroaster was initially unsuccessful in gaining converts apart from his cousin, but later he successfully converted the King, who made it the official religion. His death is not mentioned in the Avesta. In Ferdowsi's Shahnameh he is said to have been murdered at the altar by the Turanians in the storming of Balkh.[8] Some Zoroastrians believe that Balkh is his final resting place, based on Ferdowsi's epic.

Classical antiquity

Although Zoroastrianism is much older, there are no significant sources mentioning the faith prior to the fifth century BCE. Herodotus was the first to write about Persian society, in his account of researches Histories. He mentions similarities to the Zoroastrian faith, including exposure of the dead.

(CC) Photo: Mary Loosemore
Angra Mainyu attacking a Bull, Persepolis

Herodotus names the tribes of Media - Busae, Parataceni, Struchates, Arizanti, Budii, Magi, and the tribes of Persia - Pasargadae, Maraphii, and Maspii, upon who'm all tribes are dependant upon. The most important tribe was the Pasargadae, of which the Achaemenid clan ruled over Persia. The Magi of Media, a priestly class, used to have considerable power over the courts of the Median Kings.

Cyrus the Great and his son Cambyses II, after the unification of Persia and Media, were responsible for reducing the power of the Magi class. In revolt, the Magi placed an usurper, pretending to be Cyrus's son Smerdis. The usurper was accepted by most people, as he had waived taxes for three years. According to the Behistun inscription, pseudo-Smerdis ruled for seven months, before being overthrown by Darius I. The Magi were persecuted, but continued to exist.

It is unknown if Cyrus II was Zoroastrian, however, it was the non-imposing religion of the Empire. It influenced him to the extent that he freed the Jews, who were exiled. Darius I and later Emperors were Zoroastrians.

Darius I and later Achaemenid Emperors permitted other religions to coexist, and exercised perfect religious tolerance.[9] It was in the later Achaemenid era that proto-indo-Iranian religious elements were incorporated into the faith. The days of the months of the Zoroastrian calendar are dedicated to them.

Many books on the Zoroastrian faith were destroyed by Alexander the Great's army after the siege of Persepolis.[10] After that, there are no sources about Zoroastrianism during the rule of the Seleucid Empire and the Parthian Empire. After Alexander's conquest, he imposed many restrictions on the Zoroastrians, particularly by closing the Towers of silence, as the Greeks considered the act of leaving the dead to be devoured by vultures to be appalling.[11]

Late antiquity

Ardashir II receiving his crown from Ahura Mazda, Mithra standing (left) as a priest

The Sassanid Empire came into power in 228 CE. They aggressively promoted the Zurivanite sect of Zoroastrianism, and were well known for building Fire Temples in every area they conquered.[12] Other religions, particularly Manichaenism and Christianity, were persecuted, apart from those loyal to the Patriarchate of Babylon.

Zoroastrianism spread throughout this period in different forms from the Caucasus to China. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Zoroastrianism founded its roots in the city states of the Silkroad. The spread of Zoroastrianism by missionaries was prohibited, and in the years following 841 A.D all foreign religions were prohibited although some parishes could survive until the Song period. Zoroastrianism soon lost its ground and vanished in this region.[13]

Islamic Invasion and decline

For more information, see: Islamic conquest of Persia and Persecution of Zoroastrians.


With the Rashidun Caliphate invasion of the Sassanid Empire in 650 CE, the religion started to decline, with the nobility and rich converting to Islam. Later on, the rural peasants converted to Islam. Although as per Sharia forced conversion was not imposed, there was a heavy pressure to convert. Once the dominant religion in Central Asia, there are now less than 200,000 Zoroastrians left.

Many centuries later, a small number of Zoroastrians known as the Parsis fled to Gujarat, India where most are concentrated today. According to the census of India, 2001, they number 69,601, making up 0.006%[14] of the total population. There's a heavy concentration of Parsis in and around the city of Mumbai. Due a low birth rate and high rate of emigration, it is speculated that by 2020, they will number approximately 23,000, cease to be labeled as a community, and will be called a tribe.

The Zoroastrians in Iran, known as Iranis have survived centuries of persecution and heavy taxes. They reside chiefly in Yazd, Kerman and Tehran in what is now Iran, numbering 19,800[15] - 25,500,[16] speaking a dialect of Persian very different from modern Persian called Dari. Many have migrated to India & Pakistan, preserving their language, heritage, and culture. They are easily distinguishable from the Parsi community.

There are 3,190 Zoroastrians in Canada,[17] however, the actual number is believed to be much higher. There are about 11,000 Zoroastrians in the United States, 6,000 in Canada, 5,000 in England, 2,700 in Australia and 2,200 in the Persian Gulf nations.[18] There are also thousands more spread all around the world.

Religious Texts

Gathas

For more information, see: Gathas.

The Gathas are the most sacred texts of the Zoroastrian faith, consisting of 17 hymns composed by Zoroaster himself. They were later incorporated into the Yasna, and are identifiable by their chapter names.[19][20]

Chapter numbers Name of Gatha Number of stanzas Number of verses & syllable metres
28-34 Ahunavaiti Gatha (cf Ahuna Vairya) 100 3 verses, 7+9 syllable metre
43-45 Ushtavaiti Gatha 'Having Happiness' 66 5 verses, 4+7 syllable metre
47-50 Spenta Mainyu Gatha 'Bounteous Spirit' 41 4 verses, 4+7 syllable metre
51 Vohu Khshathra Gatha 'Good Dominion' 22 3 verses, 7+7 syllable metre
53 Vahisto Ishti Gatha 'Best Beloved' 9 4 verses, two of 7+5 and two of 7+5+5 syllables

Zend-Avesta

For more information, see: Zend-Avesta.
(PD) Photo: Bodleian Library
Yasna 28.1

The Zend-Avesta, called Avesta in short, is the prayer-book of Zoroastrians. It is divided into five parts, the Yasna, the Vispered, Vendidad, Yashts, and Khordah Avesta. The prose suggests that it was written after Zoroaster's death.

The Yasna, the principal liturgical book of the Parsees, in 72 chapters (hait-i, ha), contains the texts that are read by the priests at the solemn yasna (Izeshne) ceremony, or the general sacrifice. The Vispered, a minor liturgical work in 24 chapters (karde), is alike in form and substance completely dependent on the Yasna, to which it is a liturgical appendix. Its separate chapters are interpolated in the Yasna in order to produce a modified - or expanded - Yasna ceremony. The Vendidad, the priestly code of the Parsees, contains in 22 chapters (fargard) a kind of dualistic account of the creation, the legend of Yima and the golden age , and in the bulk of the remaining chapters the precepts of religion with regard to the cultivation of the earth, the care of useful animals, the protection of the sacred elements, such as earth, fire and water, the keeping of a man's body from defilement, together with the requisite measures of precaution, elaborate ceremonies of purification, atonements, ecclesiastical expiations ,and so forth. The Yashts, i.e. " songs of praise," in so far as they have not been received already into the Yasna, form a collection by themselves. They contain invocations of separate Izads, or angels, number 21 in all, and are of widely divergent extent and antiquity. The Khordah Avesta, i.e. the Little Avesta, comprises a collection of shorter prayers designed for all believers - the laity included - and adapted for the various occurrences of ordinary life.[21]

Other Texts

There are other texts which are of religious or semi-religious nature. They were all compiled many centuries later, after the 9th century, with the youngest created in the 17th century. Some claim to contain lost chapters of the Avesta.

The texts in Middle Persian are:

  • The Dēnkard ("Acts of Religion")
  • The Bundahishn ("Primordial Creation")
  • The Mēnog-ī Khirad ("Spirit of Wisdom")
  • The Arda Viraf Nāmag ("Book of Arda Viraf")

The Sad Dar ("Hundred Doors or Chapters") is in Mordern Persian and The Rivayats (Traditional Treatises) are in Middle as well as Mordern Persian.

Angelology and Demonology

There are certain types of Angels, Demons, and other supernatural entities in the faith. Daevas, Yazatas, Amensha Spentas, and Ahuras are these types of entities.

Spenta Mainyu

© Photo: Hannah M.G. Shapero
An artist's conception of Spenta Mainyu

Spenta Mainyu is the spirit who's in direct antagonism with Angra Mainyu. Considered an Amesha Spenta, the relation between Ahura Mazda and Spenta Mainyu remains subtle and elusive, in the Avesta as well as the Gathas. Ahura Mazda is replaced with Spenta Mainyu in the Gathas, which regard him as Angra Mainyu's twin, both representing the good and evil aspects of nature respectively. An analysis of the Gathas and the Avesta conclude that Spenta Mainyu is not to be considered as a separate being, but as a divine attribute of Ahura Mazda. Therefore, Spenta Mainyu is either used along with Ahura Mazda as his epithet, or presented alone to represent him, such as his majesty is used to represent a King.

Sevaral passages in the Avesta speak of good creations belonging to Spenta Mainyu, such as the stars. Unlike Ahura Mazda and the Amesha Spentas, Spenta Mainyu does not receive homage or invocation.

Amesha Spentas

For more information, see the catalogs subpage

Amesha Spentas are a particular type of divine class known as "Bounteous Immortals". They're the divine "sparks" created by Ahura Mazda, as expressions and aspects of creation, that are each representative of one aspect of that creation. The Yazatas, who are lesser in league, in turn, assist the Amesha Spentas. The Amesha Spentas are each responsible for a special domain. They're often compared to Christian archangels, and fight for truth and justice. Each Amesha Spenta has an archenemy, one of the Daevas.

The Amesha Spentas are -

  • Ameretat
  • Armaiti
  • Asha vahishta
  • Haurvatat
  • Khshathra vairya
  • Vohu Manah

Yazatas

For more information, see the catalogs subpage

Yazata is the Avestan term for an entity that is worthy of worship. The Yazatas are collectively represent the good powers of Ahura Mazda, who is the greatest of the Yazatas.[22]

The Yazatas have different powers and characteristics. For instance, Aredvi Sura Anahita is a divinity of waters. Sarosh, Mithra, and Rashnu are the guardians of the Chivnat bridge, through which all souls must pass.[23]

The Yazatas are often compared to Christian angels.

Ahuras

Ahuras are a class of divinities, similar to the Vedic concept of Asura. Of these, three divinities are repeatedly identified as Ahuric. These three are Ahura Mazda, Mithra and Apam Napat, and hence known as the "Ahuric triad"[24]* Boyce, Mary. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. (1985). 252 pp. ISBN 0415239028</ref>, of which Ahura Mazda is the mightiest of all (Yasna 33.11).

Daevas

Daeva is the Avestan term for supernatural entities with disagreeable characteristics. Daevas used to be the Gods worshiped by the pre-Zoroastrian Persians, in their polytheistic faith. After Zoroaster preached his revelations, their status was diminished to that of evil entities, possibly during the Achaemenid era. In the Gathas, they're termed as false Gods. In the Avesta, Deavas are noxious characters that promote chaos.[25] Each Daeva fights a particular Amesha Spenta.

The Daevas are -

  • Aesma Daeva
  • Aka Manah
  • Indra (not to be confused with the Vedic Indra)
  • Nanghaithya
  • Saurva
  • Tawrich
  • Zarich

Worship & Rituals

(CC) Photo: Sebastià Giralt
A Fire Temple in Yazd, Iran

The Zoroastrians have often been described as 'fire worshipers'. However, this is quite false, as Zoroastrians use fire as a purifying agent, which signifies Ahura Mazda's purity. Use of fire as a purifying agent is central to Zoroastrianism. Worship usually takes place inside a Fire Temple, five times a day. Mordern Zoroastrians continue to maintain the fire ritually, and the fire is centrally placed in the temple. Priests cover their mouths with cloth in order to avoid contaminating the fire. Worshipers wash themselves before entering the temple, bringing offerings of sandalwood and money, in turn, they receive ashes which they rub on their faces.[26]

(CC) Photo: Sebastià Giralt
Fire represents Ahura Mazda's purity

The inner ceremonies

The most important inner ceremony is the Yasna. The Yasna can only be performed by ritually purified priests in Iran and India. It contains 72 chapters of text and can only be performed in the morning when the sun is rising. The ceremony takes place in the inner sanctuary, the pawi, and only ritually purified priests may enter the pawi. The whole ceremony takes two hours to celebrate. The Zoroastrian priesthood is adamant that without the Yasna, the whole world would collapse, and Angra Mainyu's forces would be victorious.[27]

The other two important Zoroastrian ceremonies are the Vendidad and Visperad. The Vendidad is a nocturnal version of the Yasna with additional material added from the Zend-Avesta book of the same name. The Visperad is a combination of the Yasna and Vendidad.[27]

Afrinagan - The outer ceremony

The Afrinagan is open to all audiences. It is suitably performed in a clean area (such as a house). In the Afrinagan, Ahura Mazda is praised for his blessings upon the world. Fruit, wine, milk, eggs, flowers, and water form part of the ritual, as well as the ever-present fire. The Afrinagan is generally performed by two priests, zot and raspi, but other qualified priests may also perform. It is appropriate to wash and dress before reciting the prayers. The Afrinagan is not restricted to Fire Temples in Iran and India.[27]

Funeral ceremonies

(CC) Photo: Sebastià Giralt
Tower of Silence, Yazd, Iran

There funeral ceremonies are divided into two types: Those that relate to disposal of the body, and those that relate to the good of the soul. For a proper appreciation of the ceremonies of the first kind, one has to look to the Zoroastrian ideas of sanitation, segregation, purification, and cleanliness, as expressed in the Vendidad.

When a person appears to be close to death, the family members call for two or more priests, who make the dying person recite the Patete, which is for repentance of all sins. If the dying person is unable to do so, the priests may recite it, although it is preferable for the dying person to recite it without the help of priests. A short while before death, the dying person is sometimes administered a few drops of Haoma. The clothes are washed and destroyed by the family members, after the death. The corpse then enters the stage of Druj-i Nasu, when it is forbidden to touch the corpse. Two purified members of the family then cover the corpse with sheets (except the face). A dog (preferably with a spot on top of each eye) is made to see the corpse. A priest then recites the Avesta, as the family members proceed to take the corpse to the Towers of Silence, where vultures proceed to devour the corpse. It is essential that the corpse be exposed to the sun, and it is forbidden to carry it to the Towers of silence during the night.

It is believed that the soul remains in the world for around three days. In this state it sees before itself a picture of its past deeds. If it is the soul of a pious person, it sees a beautiful picture of its deeds in the past life and feels happy and joyful. If it is the soul of a wicked person, it sees a horrible picture of its past deeds and shudders and feels unhappy at the sight and feels at a loss where to go. Hence, ceremonies for the good of the soul are performed. Srosh is the angel who guides a soul to the afterlife. The Srosh Baj is recited, to guide the soul. An Afrinagan ceremony is performed by two priests in honour of Srosh. The Yasna and Vendidad are recited in nearby fire temples. These ceremonies, and more, continue for three days, until the soul has departed from the world.[28]

Similarities to other faiths & influence on others

(CC) Photo: Sebastià Giralt
Mithras slaying the Bull

Zoroastrianism has many striking similarities to faiths around it. It incorporates many features of both Abrahamic as well as Dharmaic faiths. It incorporates a high degree of syncretism. For instance, it's been speculated that Zoroastrian concepts of eschatology and demonology had influence on Abrahamic religions. Zoroastrianism has many concepts similar to the ancient Vedic religion, such as the veneration of fire.[24][29] The similarities between the yasna and the Hindu yajna are striking, as both rituals are performed during sunrise, and both have similar names.

A mystery religion developed in the Roman Empire, influenced heavily by Zoroastrianism. Roman soldiers syncretised worship of Mithra with their rituals, and this developed into the Mithraic mysteries. The worship of Mithras became popular all over the Roman Empire, and temples dedicated to Mithras have been discovered across the European continent, including England. Mithraism was so popular that Mithra was eventually declared as Sol Invictus - The Unconquered Sun God. After the edicts of Theodosius I banning paganism, the religion slowly declined and eventually vanished.[30]

Some scholars maintain that the Zoroastrian ritual of praying five times daily influenced Islam[26], while Muslims state that all existing and extinct religions were similar to Islam initially, created by prophets similar to Zoroaster and Muhammad.

Festivals

The most important Zoroastrian festivals celebrated are - Nouruz and Khodad Sal.

The New Year - Nouruz is celebrated on the day of the Spring equinox around March 20/21. Nouruz is still celebrated in Iran, by the Shi'a Muslim Persians. Traditionally in Iran a table is set up with a display of the seven creations.

Khodad Sal is the celebration of the birthday of the prophet Zoroaster.

Other important days of devotion and festivity are:

  • Sadeh
  • Parab of Aban (to venerate water)
  • Adur (to venerate fire)
  • Tirgan
  • Mehergan
  • Other prominent festivals and celebrations are Yalda (commemorating of the longest night) and death anniversary (Zarathust no diso) of Zarathushtra.
  • Gahambars - 6 seasonal festivals

Zurvanism

For more information, see: Zurvanism.

Zurvanism is considered to be the biggest heresy within Zoroastrianism. Zurvanism was a sect of Zoroastrianism which acknowledged a superior deity to Ahura Mazda, Zurvan. According to the belief, Zurvan was the first being in the universe, who gave birth to two sons, Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu. Zurvan promised to give his firstborn, Ahura Mazda, sovereignty over the world for 9,000 years, and Angra Mainyu sovereignty for the next 9,000 years. Ahura Mazda stood in the light, while Angra Mainyu reeked of darkness. From there onwards, the normal history of Zoroastrianism takes place.

Zurvanism was the sect promoted by the Sassanid Empire of Persia, and it's believed that Zurvan was the chief polytheistic deity of the Royal family of the Empire, prior to their conversion to Zoroastrianism. Evidence suggests that Zurvanism was very popular in the western half of Iran during the height of the Sassanid Empire. Most references on Zurvanism have been purged, and Zurvan followers were the first to convert to Islam after the conquest of Persia.[31]

Famous Zoroastrians

For more information, see the catalogs subpage.

Further reading

See the Bibliography subpage

Notes

  1. ↑ The term Zoroastrianism was first attested by the Oxford English Dictionary in 1874 in Archibald Sayce's Principles of Comparative Philology
  2. ↑ Mazdaism is a 19th century construct, taking Mazda- from the name Ahura Mazda and adding the suffix -ism
  3. ↑ The term Mazdayasna is a combination of Mazda with the Avestan language word Yasna, meaning worship or devotion
  4. ↑ Ahura Mazda (aka Oromasdes, Ohrmazd, Ormazd, Ormusd, Hoormazd, etc) is the most frequently invoked spirit in the Yasna, the liturgy of Avesta (Old Iranian) texts for Zoroastrianism. The meaning of the word Ahura is "lord", and that of Mazda is "wisdom".
  5. ↑ The term Parsi was universally applied for all Iranians, regardless of faith, by all Indians. Similarly, Iranians applied the universal term Hindu for everyone from the subcontinent.
  6. ↑ Shahbazi, A. Shapur (1977), "The 'Traditional Date of Zoroaster' Explained", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 40 (1): 25-35
  7. ↑ Boyce, Mary & Grenet, Frantz - A History of Zoroastrianism, ISBN 9004104747
  8. ↑ Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edition - Zoroaster
  9. ↑ Herodotus - Histories
  10. ↑ Denkard - Book of Arda Viraf
  11. ↑ Rawlinson, H.G. - Bactria, The History Of A Forgotten Empire, ISBN 8120616154
  12. ↑ Hartman, Sven S. - Parsism: The Religion of Zoroaster, page 7, ISBN 9004062084
  13. ↑ ChinaKnowledge.de - Religions in China - Zoroastrianism
  14. ↑ Census of India, 2001
  15. ↑ Census of Iran, 2006
  16. ↑ Iran Statistical Centre, 2007
  17. ↑ Census of Canada, 1991
  18. ↑ Fezana Journal survey
  19. ↑ Humbach, Helmut (2001). Gathas: The texts. Encyclopedia Iranica 10.
  20. ↑ Malandra, William (2001). Gathas: Translations. Encyclopedia Iranica 10.
  21. ↑ Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition - Zend-Avesta
  22. ↑ Boyce, Mary, "Aməša Spənta", Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 1, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  23. ↑ Boyce, Mary (1969), "On Mithra's Part in Zoroastrianism", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 32 (1): 10-34.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Boyce, Mary. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. (1985). 252 pp. ISBN 0415239028
  25. ↑ Dhalla, Maneckji Nusservanji - Zoroastrian Civilization: From the Earliest Times to the Downfall of the Last Zoroastrian Empire 651 A.D., ISBN 1430493119
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Brodd, Jefferey - World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, ISBN 0884897257
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Clark, Peter - Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to an Ancient Faith, ISBN 1898723788
  28. ↑ Modi, Jivanji Jamshedji, The Funeral Ceremonies of the Parsees - Their origin and explanation (fourth edition)
  29. ↑ Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1988), "Zoroastrianism", Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 29, Danbury: Grolier pages 813–815
  30. ↑ Beck, Roger, The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire, London: Oxford University Press
  31. ↑ Jong, Albert de - Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature, page 330, ISBN 9004108440
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