George Washington

George Washington (1732-1799) was the military leader of the American victory over Britain in the American Revolution and the first President of the United States of America (1789-1797).

Early Life

Ellis (2004) shows Washington was influenced by the East, where he picked up the deferential world of British patronage and hierarchy and curried favor from the well-connected Fairfax family, but failed to get a permanent commission in the British army. From the West came experiences on the Ohio frontier, where Washington carried out surveying expeditions and military campaigns against the French and Indians. Going to war instead of to college, Ellis concludes, scarred and immunized Washington against idealism.

American Revolution

Washington's path to revolution reflected the American ideology of republicanism; indeed, it provides "an almost textbook example of the Radical Whig ideology that historians have made the central feature of scholarship on the American Revolution for the past forty years." Personal experiences on multiple levels convinced Washington there was indeed a a British conspiracy to enslave the colonies, as he saw imperial policies constantly limiting and restricting his prized autonomy. In his quests for a commission in the Redcoat army, for western land, and for economic independence from British consignment merchants, Washington found himself losing out, becoming a helpless dependent.

Washington and the Continental Army triumphed by driving the British out of Boston in 1776, then survived humiliating defeats in their failed attempt to defend New York City in 1776. They revived their fortunes and hopes for the Revolution in small but stunning victories at Trenton and Princeton, tricked the British into dividing their forces in 1777 so that the British defeated Washington in small battles near Philadelphia while the main British army was forced to surrender at Saratoga, enabling the French to enter the war and make it an even contest militarily,

As Ellis (2004) argues, the June 1775-March 1776 siege of Boston was the formative event in George Washington's development as a military and political leader, for it was there that he first responded to the logistical problems inherent to the American cause in the Revolutionary War with his trademark determination, leadership ability, and sound decisionmaking. He also, however, exhibited a stubborn, aloof, severe personality that "virtually precluded intimacy." Washington, dubbed "His Excellency" by the adoring American public, also became acquainted with many of his future staff members and lieutenants during this period. The British were forced out of Boston and everyplace in America, which declared its independence and became "the United States of America" on July 4, 1776.

Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851) by Emanuel Leutze

King George III personally demanded the rebellion be suppressed. He sent two-thirds of his army, and half of the Royal Navy in "the largest projection of seaborne power ever attempted by a European power." The British sent 23,000 regular troops under experienced officers and sergeants, and another 10,000 trained Hessians (hired Germans) supported by 70 warships. The ocean off the entire coast came under British control, shutting down the large American merchant marine. In the face of this, Washington's forces melted away. He had more than 28,000 men under his command at the end of August when the British landed. After losing badly in New York City, at the beginning of December he had a mere 6,800. But he used them in an audacious Christmas-day attack that destroyed the Hessian garrison at Trenton and defeated the British outpost at Princeton. Threatened by Washington and harrassed by patriotic farmer-marksmen, the British withdrew from New Jersey.

Constitution

Long before most of his contemporaries, Washington realized that independence could not be guaranteed without a standing army and that a nation strong enough to defend itself and to control the West could not exist without a central taxing power and a competent executive authority. All of those things, he admitted. ran directly counter to anti-tax, anti-centralizing sentiments that animated the Revolution. But were necessary nonetheless, Washington insisted throughout the 1780s. Ellis (2004) concludes that Washington, succeeded in reconciling those contradictions and playing the difficult role of a semi-monarchical republican leader because he understood so well the proper use of power and could project "onto the national screen ... the same kind of controlling authority he had orchestrated within his own personality."

First President

Washington entered the presidency with the overwhelming support of every group in the nation, thus allowing him great freedom in setting up the customs, honors and daily functioning of the new government. Washington surrounded himself with a sophisticated and intelligent group of consultants and supporters and successfully delegated most of the responsibility for the conduct of their offices to those trusted colleagues. He practiced "leading by listening".

As President Washington employed careful restraint in exercising executive power (to prevent a backlash against centralization), and practiced calculated postponement of potentially lethal issues such as foreign war or ending slavery. His was restrained regarding such issues as the power of the Supreme Court and the abolition of slavery (he quietly favored gradual emancipation), and his absence from early propouncements in favor of Hamilton's financial plans, allowed him to develop both a nation and an office that appeared above the day-to-day political battles. However, he played a leading role in the struggle to locate the permanent national capital in D.C. and in making foreign policy. He believed America's future interests did not depend on Europe but on the people and lands to the nation's west. Washington's vision led to a restrained but effective use of the power of the executive office and the foundations for a strong national government.

French Revolution

Washington had not travelled outside the U.S. (apart from a brief visit to Bermuda), and paid little attention to European afffairs. When the French Revolution led to war in 1793 between Britain (America's leading trading partner), and France (the old ally, with a treaty still in effect), Washington and his cabinet decided on a policy of neutrality.

Family and personality

As Henriques (2006) stresses, Washington was driven by a lifelong quest for fame. He zealously guarded his reputation and took great care to ensure that he always acted properly and that he received due acknowledgement for his propriety. Washington prided himself on his honorable actions and was inordinately sensitive to criticism. Ellis (2004) stresses that Washington learned to discipline his emotions as an essential survival skill while facing dangers a young officer in the Seven Year's War. That capacity for self-control, outwardly manifested in his famous aloofness, served Washington well again during the Revolution not only by insulating him from criticism but also by enabling him to curb his ambitions sufficiently to give up power at the end of the war, thereby earning him the universally honorable reputation that he so ardently desired.

Washington died in 1799 from acute epiglottitis during an influenza epidemic. Attending physicians could not agree whether his condition was cynanche, an inflammation of the throat that was believed to require powerful remedies, or something that would require less radical therapeutic interventions than those his physicians had prescribed.

Slavery

Critics argue that Washington's status as a slaveholder, his treatment of his slaves, and his condoning of the institution of slavery besmirch his reputation as the "father of our country." Washington's stay at the President's House in Philadelphia was similarly colored by slavery - nine slaves resided both in the house and in adjacent slave quarters. As a slaveholder, Washington personally struggled to balance the moral injustice of the institution with harsh realities, such as the fact that his own slaves were intermarried with those of his wife, whom he could not legally free. In his will, Washington emancipated his 123 slaves and provided financial support for the elderly and vocational training for the young. He acted in part to remove the only stain on his carefully cultivated reputation.

Bibliography

Interpretations

• Marcus Cunliffe. Washington: Man and Monument (1958),
• Joseph J. Ellis, His Excellency: George Washington (2004), by Pulitzer prize winner
• Peter R. Henriques. Realistic Visionary: A Portrait of George Washington. (2006).
• Higginbotham, Don. George Washington: Uniting a Nation (2002)

Biographies

• Alden, John R. George Washington: A Biography (1984)
• Ferling, John E. The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (1988)
• Flexner, James Thomas. Washington: The Indispensable Man (1974).
• Flexner, James Thomas. George Washington, 4 vols. (1965–1972).
• Freeman, Douglas Southall, George Washington, 7 vols. (1948–1957); Pulitzer prize; a one-volume condensed version appeared in 1968

Military

• Alden, John Richard. A History of the American Revolution (1969).
• Bodle, Wayne. Valley Forge Winter: Civilians and Soldiers in War (2002)
• Buchanan, John. The Road to Valley Forge: How Washington Built the Army That Won the Revolution (2004) 368 pgs. online edition
• Fischer, David Hackett. Washington's Crossing (2004), Pulitzer prize winner; study of 1776-77 online excerpt
• Higginbotham, Don. George Washington and the American Military Tradition (1985);
• Higginbotham, Don. The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789 (1971). an analytical history of the war
• Ketchum, Richard M. Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton (1973)
• Lengel, Edward G. General George Washington: A Military Life. (2005). 450 pp
• McCullough, David. 1776. 386 pp.
• Reed, John F. Campaign to Valley Forge: July 1, 1777–December 19, 1777 (1965)
• Royster, Charles. A Revolutionary People at War: The Continental Army and American Character, 1775–1783 (1979)
• Taaffe, Stephen R. The Philadelphia Campaign, 1777–1778 (2003).
• Ward, Christopher. The War of the Revolution, 2 vols., 1952, a good narrative of all the major battles.
• Wrong, George M. Washington and His Comrades in Arms: A Chronicle of the War of Independence (1921) by a Canadian scholar online edition
• West Point Atlas

Specialty studies

• Morgan, Philip D. "'To Get Quit of Negroes': George Washington and Slavery. Journal of American Studies 2005 39(3): 403-429. Issn: 0021-8758
• Novak, Michael and Novak, Jana. Washington's God: Religion, Liberty, and the Father of Our Country. 2006. 282 pp.
• Pogue, Dennis J. "George Washington: Slave Master." American History 2004 38(6): 52-61. Issn: 1076-8866 Fulltext: in Ebsco, popular history

Primary sources

• George Washington. Writings (1988) (Library of America edition) 440 letters and key documents. online table of contents

Large editions

Four major editions of Washington's writings have appeared:

• The Writings of George Washington, edited by Jared Sparks (12 volumes, 1833-37)
• The Writings of George Washington, edited by Worthington Chauncey Ford (14 volumes, 1889-93) online volumes
• The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745-1799, edited by John C. Fitzpatrick (39 volumes, 1931-44).
• The Papers of George Washington, edited by W. W. Abbot, Dorothy Twohig, and others, is ongoing; 32 volumes have been published since 1976, and when complete this edition will be the most comprehensive edition so far.
  • Washington, George. The Papers of George Washington: Presidential Series University Press of Virginia. Latest volume is Vol. 12: January-May 1793. ed by Philander D. Chase, 2005. 708 pp.
  • Washington, George. The Papers of George Washington: Revolutionary War Series. University Press of Virginia. Latest volume is Vol. 14: March-April 1778. ed by Philander D. Chase, 2004. 832 pp.
• Documents of the American Revolution, 1770-1783 Ed. by K.G. Davies. 21 vols. (Irish Academic University Press, 1972), all the important British documents

See also

United States Presidents

External Links

White House biography

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