Milwaukee, Wisconsin

Milwaukee is the name of the largest city and largest county in the state of Wisconsin and 22nd-largest city in the United States. The city is the county seat of Milwaukee County and is located on the southwestern shore of Lake Michigan. As of the 2005 U.S. Census estimate, Milwaukee had a population of 578,887. The city is the main cultural and economic center of the Milwaukee–Racine-Waukesha metropolitan area with a population of 1,753,355.

Milwaukeeans often boast their metropolis is a highly "livable" city where they enjoy competent government, little traffic, many parks, affordable homes, and numerous cultural events. It is largely independent of the huge Chicago metropolitan area 75 miles to the south, which induces "if not an inferiority complex, then at least a dearth of illusions and a bare minimum of self-importance."

Incorporated in 1846 the city attracted large numbers of German immigrants to its growing industries, as well as Yankees and Irish. After 1900 Poles and African Americans arrived in large numbers. After 1970 most whites moved to the suburbs as the city lost much of its industry and became a postmodern service center strongest in education and medicine.

"The City of Festivals" features many ethnic and musical festivals, the largest of which is Summerfest. "Brew City" recalls its long-time role as major brewing center.

In the past decade, new additions to downtown have included a Riverwalk, the Midwest Airlines Center, an internationally renowned addition to the Milwaukee Art Museum, as well as the major renovations to the Milwaukee Auditorium and U.S. Cellular Arena.

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Milwaukee Art Museum, new wing (2001) designed by Santiago Calatrava.

History

Pre-1800

The Milwaukee area was originally inhabited by the Fox, Mascouten, Potawatomi, and Winnebago Indian tribes. French missionaries and traders first passed through the area in the late 1600s and 1700s.

The first white fur trader to settle in Milwaukee was French Canadian Jacques Vieau, who established a fur trading post near the Menomonee River in 1795. The post was on the Chicago-Green Bay trail, located where Mitchell Park is today. Vieau married the granddaughter of an Indian chief and had at least twelve children. Vieau's daughter, Josetta, would later marry Solomon Juneau.

1800 to 1849

Three "founding fathers" settled the area. Frenchman Solomon Juneau arrived in 1818 and in 1833 founded a town on the east side of the Milwaukee River. Juneau's Side, or Juneau Town. Byron Kilbourn founded a settlement on the west side of the Milwaukee River. George H. Walker claimed land to the south of the Milwaukee River, that became known as Walker's Point.

In 1846 the three settlements combined and incorporated as the City of Milwaukee. Solomon Juneau became the first mayor. A great number of German immigrants had helped increase the city's population during the 1840s and continued to migrate to the area during the following decades. Milwaukee has even been called "Deutsches Athen" (German Athens), and at one point there were more German speakers than English speakers in the city.

1850 to 1900

File:Milw1855.jpg

view in mid 1850s

The city was heavily Democratic and was reluctant to support the draft laws during the U.S. Civil War. George Wilbur Peck, a Yankee, moved to Wisconsin at an early age. After serving in the Civil War, he began publishing a newspaper. His personality and skilled use of humor led to his becoming the mayor of Milwaukee in 1890 and following the Democratic upset in 1890 became the governor of Wisconsin. His "bad boy" stories were featured in his newspaper, the Sun, and later published as a novel. By focusing on real people and events in his stories, he shed light on politics, ethnicity, religion, and life in late-19th-century Milwaukee.

May 5, 1886 was the day of the Bay View Tragedy in which striking Polish workers attacking a steel mill in the Bay View section were intercepted by a squad of National Guardsmen who fired when the marchers refused to halt, killing seven.

Religious and ethnic tensions abounded in the late 19th century. There was conflict between German Catholics and English-speaking Irish Catholics over temperance, the need for parish schools, and the "discouraging" of American seminarians. Archbishop John Martin Henni, who was Swiss, played a central role from 1844. Conflicts erupted between Catholic laity and clergy over parish governance, between German and Irish priests over the nature of ethnic parishes and German hegemony in Wisconsin, between Catholics and Protestants over Bible reading in public schools (the Edgerton Bible Case), between the state legislature and the Catholic bishops over whether parents or the state had the right to educate children (Bennett Law of 1889), and between Germans and Polish immigrants over efforts to "Germanize" them.

Women leaders

Like their male relatives, German American women in the 1840s-1880s were fond of organizing. At a time when the city's German community reached its greatest extension and complexity these women were involved in a wide variety of activities, appropriating for themselves all types of organizational forms. By building their own organizations, German American women proved their ability to create their own spaces in which they could come together outside the home and invest their energies in projects beyond the immediate concerns of the family. By organizing and becoming involved, German American women were able to realize their potential as social agents and to make crucial contributions to community-building processes. At the same time, they were able to move beyond the gender roles of wife and mother, which had restricted them for so long.

Mary Blanchard Lynde (1820-1897), a Yankee was a tireless and gifted reformer throughout her years in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, from 1841 until her death in 1897. She used her social position as the wife of William Pitt Lynde, a prominent attorney and political figure, to lead numerous charitable efforts. Her work culminated in an appointment to the Wisconsin State Board of Charities and Reform in April 1871, making her the first woman in Wisconsin to serve on a state board.

Lizzie Black Kander (1858-1940) sought to Americanize the Yiddish-speaking Jewish community by teaching the immigrant women how to cook more scientifically and more like mainstream Americans. Kander's Settlement Cook Book, first issued in 1901, was published as a way to raise money for the Settlement House, a place where Milwaukee's Jewish immigrants were encouraged to abandon their old cooking practices and to embrace American middle-class customs and values.

1900 to 1955

Between 1886 and 1919, Milwaukee became a major, modern industrial city. With electricity and the internal combustion engine, steel became a major industry and provided the basics for emerging companies like Allis-Chalmers and J. I. Case. By 1914, the city was the nation's tenth leading manufacturing center. The electric trolley helped many of the industrial workers move further away from their work places and spread the city over a larger area. By 1914, one in five workers worked for the seven largest companies. Working conditions improved, as industries sought greater efficiency and installed programs of welfare capitalism to tie workers psychologically to the company. Low skilled workers were in demand and their numbers increased, especially with the large Polish immigration. Unmarried women increased their numbers in the work force. Long days and weeks were normal, but pay levels were very uneven. Working conditions were often unsanitary and unsafe. Affordable housing was poor and in short supply, and city services were often inadequate to meet the new demands of an increasing population and industrial base.

Socialism

During the first half of the twentieth century, Milwaukee was a center of the socialist movement in the United States. From their base in the German community, especially among brewry workers, socialists elected three socialist mayors during this time: Emil Seidel (1910-1912), Daniel Hoan (1916-1940), and Frank Zeidler (1948-1960), and was the only major city in the country to have done so. Often referred to as "sewer socialists," the Milwaukee socialists were characterized by their practical approach to government and labor. These practices emphasized cleaning up neighborhoods and factories with new sanitation systems, city owned water and power systems as well as an improved public education system.

Socialists championed social centers as places to encourage play, entertainment, and civic activity for Milwaukeeans from all economic classes and political persuasions. The Socialists hoped the social centers would allow open political debate, but this part of the centers' activities was closely regulated by the Milwaukee Board of School Directors, which oversaw the social programs. First opened in 1908, the social centers remained active well into the 1940s. Many of their functions were eventually taken over by the Milwaukee County Department of Parks, Recreation, and Culture.

Heinrich Bartel, an Austrian immigrant, served as editor of the party's German-language newspaper, Vorwärts, and composed poetry and music influenced by socialist thought. During World War I, Bartel defended German culture while attacking the capitalist motivations that had caused both Germany and America to go to war. Although Vorwärts, under his leadership, remained true to the socialist cause during the war, its second-class mailing rights were revoked as a result of the Espionage Act in 1918, and it survived only until 1932.

In the 1920s, planning and zoning were used by Socialist mayor Daniel Hoan, and city planner Charles Whitnall, to improve the poor housing and congested slums by redistributing resources to the people by reconnecting them with nature in garden-city lots. Decentralization was the overall goal, and to that end the city passed stringent land-use zoning ordinances, began a municipally driven cooperative housing project, developed a system of parks and parkways, and undertook an ambitious annexation program to unify the city. However, decentralization in Milwaukee, as in most cities, was never fully realized.

Great Depression

The Milwaukee Handicraft Project (MHP), sponsored by the WPA (Work Projects Administration) of the New Deal, employed more than five thousand workers between 1935 and 1943. The mostly female MHP workers, more than half of whom were African Americans, learned work skills that helped them eventually find jobs in the private sector. Elsa Ulbricht, an art teacher at the Milwaukee State Teachers College, organized and directed the project, which produced handicrafts made from wood, paper, yarn, and cloth. The handicraft products could only be sold to public institutions. Examples of MHP work are included in the collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin's Museum Division.

Ethnicity and religion

After 1900 accelerated industrialization brought the immigration of Poles and other new Catholic groups with a resulting growth in sisterhoods and the creation of institutions to provide education, health, and social services. The era 1900-1941 was a period of maturation, centralization, consolidation, Romanization, Americanization, and professionalization of the archdiocese influenced both by the increasing professionalism in American life and the codification of canon law. "Other Catholicisms" emerged, including vibrant cultures for Slovaks, African Americans, and Mexicans, as did a "cookie cutter Priesthood" which standardized clerical culture. New parishes began to focus on educating children in graded classes taught by sisters who were becoming professional educators. High schools, academies, and institutions of higher education for sisters and lay women followed. Popular devotional life deepened as Catholicism dominated the lives of over a third of the people in southeastern Wisconsin.

Italian women continued their traditional contributions to family economies in Milwaukee by taking boarders and setting up such businesses as grocery stores, drugstores, and confectionery shops that catered to a thriving Italian ethnic enclave. Most important, Milwaukee's large community of Italian immigrants attracted a significant number of professional midwives who migrated on their own, were highly trained and well-educated, and often used their own names in their professional practices, whether or not they were married.

A small, but burgeoning community of African-Americans emigrated from the south formed a community that would come to be known as Bronzeville. This area (near Old World Third Street and Martin Luther King Drive) soon became known as a "Harlem of the Midwest" for its jazz clubs and juke joints which attracted both local and nationally renowned musicians. Bronzeville's signifigance began to fall off as the heart of Milwaukee's Black community shifted north following World War II; and urban renewal, plus the building of a major expressway through its heart destroyed the geographic continuity of the district. However, the area has been experiencing something of a revival within the past few years as it has seen the arrival of several new businesses, condos, coffee shops and small night clubs which seek to recapture the prominence the area once had.

Milwaukee attracted postwar immigrants from Ireland, Germany, Hungary, Poland and other central European nations. Milwaukee became one of the 15 largest cities in the nation, and by the mid-1960s, its population reached nearly 750,000. After 1945 the city pursued a successful annexation program by breaking with powerful organized interests with whom city officials had previously partnered in annexation policy. For a time, annexation policy was driven largely by local government officials acting independently of societal actors. While this period of local government autonomy was temporary, it produced several noteworthy developments in annexation policy that would not have occurred had the city failed to distance itself from organized interests.

1955 to the present

Before the 1950s, socialism dominated politics and political discourse in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. By the 1956 mayoral election, however, a shifting pattern from class-based politics to race-based politics emerged as racial tensions came to the surface in the city. The election campaign involving Socialist Party candidate and incumbent Frank P. Zeidler and Milton J. McGuire, a conservative Democrat, was seemingly waged over urban renewal and whether redevelopment should be in the hands of private or public interests. Democrats, however, linked publicly run urban redevelopment to socialism and un-Americanism and then blamed social democrats for the deteriorating conditions and increased racial tensions in the inner city.

Starting in the late 1960s, like many cities in the "rust belt," Milwaukee saw its population start to decline due to various factors, including the loss of high paying unionized blue collar jobs and the move to better housing in the suburbs. However, in recent years the city began to make strides in improving its economy, neighborhoods, and image, resulting in the revitalization of neighborhoods such as the Third Ward, the East Side, and more recently, Bay View, along with attracting new businesses to its downtown area. The city continues to make plans for increasing its future revitalization through various projects. Largely due to its efforts to preserve its history, in 2006 Milwaukee was named one of the "Dozen Distinctive Destinations" by the National Trust for Historic Preservation.

Milwaukee still faces a shrinking population, and other problems, such as crime, racial tension, poverty, and a precarious school system, presenting a serious challenge to the city. Although the crime rate is down since the early 1990s, the issues of urban crime and police corruption are still at the forefront, frequently appearing on the front page of local newspapers. Minortity leaders denounce the city as one of the most segregated cities in the United States, and accusations of police brutality and racial profiling are common.

Race, police and welfare issues

Harold Breier served as Milwaukee's Chief of Police from 1964 until 1984. His tenure occurred during a time of cultural upheaval in the United States, marked by the turmoil of the civil rights movement, the peace movement, and a youth rebellion against traditional societal values and norms. Many people perceived Breier as an opponent of cultural or political change. He was accused of tolerating excessive police force, especially when minority citizens or counterculture youth were involved, and presiding over a racially segregated police department. Others credited him with making Milwaukee one of the safest cities in the country and protecting the core values of American society.

Arthur Jones, the city's first permanent African-American police chief, filed a racial discrimination complaint against the city in 2002. That grew into two unsuccessful lawsuits filed in 2004, after Jones lost a bid for mayor. Critics accused Jones of ineffectiveness. In 2008 Nannette Hegerty, the city's first woman police chief, sued contending that she was discriminated against when her successor received a higher salary than she received.

Race is a contentious issue, and the city is frequently cited as hypersegregated or even as "the most segregated city in America", although the latter is a very controversial contention. It is certainly more nearly accurate at present to say that the metropolitan area, rather than the city itself, is hypersegregated.

In 1998 the state's W-2 welfare program placed added burdens on women in its aim to push poor mothers toward "economic self-sufficiency." Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, established under the 1996 Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, no longer guaranteed assistance. Sanctions and a labor market deficit in Milwaukee created further problems for poor women. Unemployed mothers adopted a range of survival mechanisms, including borrowing and receiving money from friends and relatives and reliance on food pantries and homeless shelters. Family needs often conflicted with work requirements for women in poor communities, a difficulty unacknowledged by a policy that failed to recognize and compensate caregivers. Sherman (2000), on the toher hand, recounts both the successes and shortcomings of the 1997 W-2 welfare reform program, which encouraged recipients to enter the workforce rather than depend on welfare benefits indefinitely.

Milwaukee's name

Milwaukee received its name from the Indian word Millioke which means "The Good Land", or "Gathering place by the water." Another interpretation is "beautiful or pleasant lands". Early explorers called the Milwaukee River and surrounding lands various names: Melleorki, Milwacky, Mahn-a-waukie, Milwarck, and Milwaucki. For many years, printed records gave the name as "Milwaukie". A Short History of Milwaukee, by William George Bruce, gives the story of Milwaukee's final name:

"[O]ne day during the thirties of the last century a newspaper calmly changed the name to Milwaukee, and Milwaukee it has remained until this day."

Geography and climate

Milwaukee lies along the shores and bluffs of Lake Michigan at the confluence of three rivers: the Menomonee, the Kinnickinnic and the Milwaukee. Smaller rivers, such as the Root River and Lincoln Creek also run throughout the city. Milwaukee's terrain is relatively flat, except for steep bluffs that begin about one half mile north and four miles south of the downtown. These bluffs give it a topographic quality distinct from that of Chicago.

The city has a total area of 251.0 square km (96.9 square miles). 248.8 km² (96.1 square miles) of it is land and 2.2 km² (0.9 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 0.88% water.

Cityscape

The city runs largely on the grid system, although in the far northwest and southwest corners of the city, the grid pattern gives way to a more suburban-style streetscape. North-south streets are numbered, and east-west streets are named. The north-south numbering line is along the Menomonee River (east of Hawley Road) and Fairview Avenue/Golfview Parkway (west of Hawley Road), with the east-west numbering line defined along 1st Street (north of Oklahoma Avenue) and Chase/Howell Avenue (south of Oklahoma Avenue).

It is crossed by Interstates 43 and 94, which come together downtown at the Marquette Interchange, which is currently under an extensive construction project set to be completed in 2008. The cost of the reconstruction will be around $810 million.

Climate

Milwaukee's location in the Midwest means that it often has rapidly changing weather, and the city experiences the full range of the seasons throughout the year. The warmest month of the year is July, when the average high temperature is 79°F (26°C), with overnight low temperatures averaging 62°F (17°C). January is the coldest month, with high temperatures averaging 26°F (-4°C), with the overnight low temperatures around 11°F (-12°C).

Milwaukee's proximity to Lake Michigan causes a convection current to form mid-afternoon, resulting in the lake effect, causing the temperatures to be warmer in the winter than regions farther from the lake, and cooler in the summer. "Cooler by the lake" is practically boilerplate language for local meteorologists during the spring and summer. Also, more snow falls in Milwaukee than surrounding areas, due to lake effect. The lake causes the relative humidity in the summer that is far higher than that of comparable cities at the same latitude, meaning that it feels hotter than the actual temperature.

Milwaukee's all-time record high temperature is 105°F (41°C) set on July 17, 1995. The coldest temperature ever experienced by the city was -26°F (-32°C) on both January 17, 1982 and February 4, 1996. The 1982 event, also known as "Cold Sunday", featured temperatures as low as -40°F (-40°C) in some of the suburbs as little as 10 miles (16km) to the north of Milwaukee, although the city itself did not approach such cold temperatures.

The wettest month is August, with frequent thunderstorms that at times bring damaging hail and high winds. In rare instances, it can bring a tornado to the more inland parts of the city. However, almost all summer rainfall in the city is brought by these storms. In spring and fall, longer events of prolonged, lighter rain bring most of the precipitation. Snow commonly falls in the city from early November until the middle of March, although it has been recorded as early as September 23, and as late as May 31. The city receives an average of 47.0 inches (1.19m) of snow in winter, but this number is highly variable. In 2000, 49.5 inches (1.26m) of snow fell solely in the month of December.

Environmental organization SustainLane ranked Milwaukee along with Mesa, Arizona, the least likely to suffer natural disasters, in a study of 50 U.S. cities measuring the risk of a natural disaster striking the city.

Demography

City of Milwaukee
Census year	Population
1850	20,061
1860	45,246
1870	71,440
1880	115,587
1890	204,468
1900	285,315
1910	373,857
1920	457,147
1930	578,249
1940	587,472
1950	637,392
1960	741,324
1970	717,099
1980	636,212
1990	628,088
2000	596,974
2005	578,887

Population

As of 2005, there are 578,887 people residing in Milwaukee. As of 2000, there were 232,188 households, and 135,133 families residing in the city. The population density is 2,399.5/km² (6,214.3 per square mile). There are 249,225 housing units at an average density of 1,001.7/km² (2,594.4 per square mile).

There are 232,188 households out of which 30.5% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.2% are married couples living together, 21.1% have a female householder with no husband present, and 41.8% are non-families. 33.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.5% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.50 and the average family size is 3.25.

In the city the population is spread out with 28.6% under the age of 18, 12.2% from 18 to 24, 30.2% from 25 to 44, 18.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.9% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 31 years. For every 100 females there are 91.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 87.2 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $32,216, and the median income for a family is $37,879. Males have a median income of $32,244 versus $26,013 for females. The per capita income for the city is $16,181. 21.3% of the population and 17.4% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 31.6% of those under the age of 18 and 11.0% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

Race, ethnicity, religion

In the 2000 census, 38% of Milwaukeeans reported that they were of German descent. Other large population groups include Polish (12.7%), Irish (10%), English (5.1%), Italian (4.4%), French (3.9%), and Hispanic origin totaled 6.3%. According to the 2004 Census Estimate, the racial makeup of the city is 46.7% White, 39.5% African American, 0.8% Native American, 3.6% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 7.3% from other races, and 2.1% from two or more races. 13.3% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race.

In 2000, the American Religion Data Archive reported Milwaukee's religious composition as 58% Catholic, 23% Lutheran, 3% Methodist and 2.5% Jewish. The remaining 13.5% are largely members of protestant denominations or members of various Eastern Orthodox churches. Milwaukee is home to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milwaukee, the Episcopal Diocese of Milwaukee, Greater Milwaukee Synod of the ELCA and the headquarters of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. The School Sisters of the Third Order of St Francis have their mother house in Milwaukee and several other religious orders have a significant presence in the area, including the Jesuits and Franciscans.

Economy

Most people associate Milwaukee with beer, since it was once the home to four of the world's largest breweries (Schlitz, Blatz, Pabst, and Miller), and was also the number one beer producing city in the world for many years. Despite the decline in its position as the world's leading beer producer after the closure of three of those breweries, its one remaining major brewery, Miller Brewing Company, remains a key employer by employing over 1,700 of the city's workers. It is owned by an international conglomerate based in London. Due to Miller's solid position as the second-largest beer-maker in the U.S., as well as a flourishing microbrewing scene, the city remains known as a beer town even though brewing only represents a fraction of its economy.

A representative entrepreneur was Ole Evinrude, an immigrant who arrived from Norway at age 5 in 1882 and relocated in Milwaukee in 1900. He designed, developed, and manufactured one of the first successful outboard motors for small boats starting in 1907. Evinrude continued to manufacture outboard motors under a variety of company names until his death in 1934.

Today 22% of the workforce is involved in manufacturing, second only to San Jose, California, and far higher than the national average of 16.5%. Service and managerial jobs are the fastest growing segments of the Milwaukee economy, and healthcare makes up 27% of all service jobs in the city.

Milwaukee is headquarters to six Fortune 1000 manufacturers and six Fortune 1000 service companies. Among these are Briggs & Stratton, Harley-Davidson, Johnson Controls, Manpower Inc., Marshall & Ilsley, Northwestern Mutual, Rockwell Automation, Roundy's Supermarkets, Metavante, Kohl's, and Wisconsin Energy. The Milwaukee area ranked number five in the nation when measuring the number of Fortune 500 companies as a share of the population. Milwaukee hosts numerous financial service firms, particularly those specializing in mutual funds and transaction processing systems, and a disproportionate number of publishing and printing companies, including Quad/Graphics.

Culture and sports

(CC) Photo: Gary Denness
The "brise soleil" open at the Milwaukee Art Museum

Museums

Milwaukee's most visually prominent cultural attraction is the Milwaukee Art Museum, especially its new $100 million wing designed by Santiago Calatrava in his first American commission. The museum includes a "brise soleil," a moving sunscreen that quite literally unfolds like the wing of a bird. Milwaukee is also home to the America's Black Holocaust Museum. Founded by lynching survivor James Cameron, the museum features exhibits which chronicle the injustices suffered throughout history by people of African descent in the United States. Mitchell Park Horticultural Conservatory is well known for its three beehive-shaped conservatory's designed by Donald Grieb and affectionately known as the domes. The Milwaukee Public Museum, Discovery World Museum, Betty Brinn Children's Museum and Milwaukee County Zoo are also notable public attractions.

Archaeologist Will C. McKern, was director of the Milwaukee Public Museum, 1943-58. He fervently believed in bringing the public into anthropology, and created the Friends of the Museum support organization, and promoted children's activities including Saturday clubs and the radio series Explorers' Club of the Air. He published popular materials as well as a scientific publication series. He encouraged a brilliant staff to construct huge walk-through dioramas for culture areas of every continent. McKern thus successfully conveyed natural and anthropological science into public knowledge.

(CC) Photo: Luiz Castro
Mitchell Park Horticultural Conservatory opened in 1967.

Performing arts

Milwaukee is home to the Florentine Opera, the Milwaukee Symphony Orchestra, the Milwaukee Ballet, Milwaukee Repertory Theatre, Milwaukee Shakespeare, Skylight Opera Theatre, First Stage Children's Theater, Milwaukee Youth Theatre, and a number of other arts organizations including the Pioneer Drum and Bugle Corps. Additionally, Milwaukee is home to artistic performance venues such as the Marcus Center for the Performing Arts, Pabst Theater, The Rave/Eagles Ballroom, Riverside Theatre, and Milwaukee Theatre. The Milwaukee Youth Arts Center, a first-of-its-kind Arts-in-education facility, is a national model.

Festivals

The ethnic festivals in the city highlight the city's distinctive approach to softening the tension between immigrant and American identities. Displays of immigrant culture, begun by German immigrants in the 1840s, evolved into annual festivals supported by public funds, which sought to promote the idea that becoming American did not necessarily conflict with the maintenance of Old World traditions. Although other cities held ethnic celebrations, these were usually more limited in their scope and tended toward the objective of assimilation. In Milwaukee, the attitudes of civic leaders and the political support of the city's socialist-dominated government were important factors in fostering such celebrations of cultural difference.

The "City of Festivals" currently highlights an annual lakefront fair called Summerfest. Listed in the Guinness Book of Records|Guinness Book of World Records as the largest music festival in the world, Summerfest attracts around 900,000 visitors a year to its twelve stages.

Many ethnic and themed festivals are held throughout the summer, usually on the lakefront Summerfest grounds. In a typical season, the 'Fests are kicked off by PrideFest in early June and are concluded with Indian Summer in early September. Polish Fest, Greek, French, Festa Italiana, German Fest, African-American, Arab, Milwaukee Irish Fest, Native American and Mexican heritages are celebrated throughout the summer.

Music

Music has always been central to the city's identity. The first "Milwaukee Beethoven Society" formed in 1843, and later became the Milwaukee Musical Society. The Germans dominated the musical character of the city. Music education was an important aspect of life for their children. In 1872 the Milwaukee public schools introduced music classes into the curriculum. Milwaukeeans believed that music would make their children morally sound and upstanding citizens while protecting them from the negative influences of an industrializing world.

Saengerbund festivals were held regularly. Classical music training is the specialty of the Wisconsin Conservatory of Music founded in 1899.

The Milwaukee Symphony Orchestra, formed in 1959 is under the baton of its fifth music director, Andreas Delfs, who began in 1997. The MSO has performed on tour in Europe, Japan, and Cuba; as well as Carnegie Hall and other venues around the United States. It is the largest cultural organization in Wisconsin, and performs over 120 Classics, Pops, Family, and Education concerts each season. Additionally, the MSO's 26 years of nationally-syndicated radio broadcasts rank among the nation's largest collections, and are heard on over 240 stations throughout the United States each year. In 2004, the MSO released the first modern English recording of Humperdinck's fairy-tale opera Hansel and Gretel, recorded live at Uihlein Hall. The MSO's education and outreach programs include Youth & Teen Concerts, MSO Stars of Tomorrow, and the nationally-acclaimed Arts in Community Education (ACE) program, the most comprehensive education initiative ever undertaken by an American orchestra, the MSO has become a national leader in arts education programming.

Milwaukee has a vibrant history of rock, blues, punk, ska, industrial music, goth and pop music bands. A range of musicians have called Milwaukee home, including Hildegarde, Woody Herman, Liberace, saxophonist Warren Wiegratz, blues giant Hubert Sumlin, the BoDeans, Violent Femmes, Citizen King, The Gufs, The Promise Ring, Little Blue Crunchy Things, Eric Bénet, Speech (rapper) from the band Arrested Development, Al Jarreau and Oil Tasters, among others. Local hip-hop acts include Black Elephant, Rusty Ps, Taste Emcees and Def Harmonic. Coo Coo Cal gave Milwaukee a national foothold in the hip-hop market with his hit single "My Projects", as did Rico Love with his signing to Usher's US Records as well as writing various R&B songs. Beer City Records, a local punk rock label, is home to Dirty Rotten Imbeciles. Venues such as Pabst Theater, Marcus Amphitheater and The Rave frequently bring internationally-known shows to which attract regional audiences.

The city is home to a thriving club scene booking prominent international DJs. In the early 1990s, the city was home to a vibrant rave scene, especially fostering hardcore techno, thanks to Drop Bass; but the scene moved south to Chicago. Milwaukee is also a center of the breakcore scene with labels such as Addict Records and Zod Records.

Sports

Milwaukee has a rich history of involvement in professional and nonprofessional sports, going back to the 19th century. Currently, its major sports teams include:

Club	Sport	Founded	Current League	Stadium
Milwaukee Brewers	Baseball	1969	Major League Baseball	Miller Park
Milwaukee Bucks	Basketball	1968	National Basketball Association	Bradley Center
Milwaukee Admirals	Hockey	1970	American Hockey League	Bradley Center
Milwaukee Wave	Indoor soccer	1984	Major Indoor Soccer League	U.S. Cellular Arena

Previously, numerous other teams have played in Milwaukee, including:

Club	Sport	Played from	League	Stadium
Cream Citys	Baseball	1878	National League
Milwaukee Unions	Baseball	1884	Union Association
Milwaukee Brewers	Baseball	1888-1901	American League	Lloyd Street Grounds
Milwaukee Brewers (1891)	Baseball	1891	American Association (19th century)
Milwaukee Brewers	Baseball	1902-1952	American Association	Borchert Field
Milwaukee Badgers	Football	1922-1926	NFL
Milwaukee Bears	Baseball	1923	Negro National League	Borchert Field
Milwaukee Chiefs	Football	1940-1941	American Football League
Milwaukee Hawks	Basketball	1951-1955	NBA	Milwaukee Arena
Milwaukee Braves	Baseball	1953-1965	MLB	Milwaukee County Stadium
Milwaukee Does	Basketball	1978-1980	WBL	MECCA Arena (now U.S. Cellular Arena)
Milwaukee Mustangs	Arena football	1994-2001	Arena Football League	Bradley Center
Milwaukee Rampage	Soccer	1994-2002	USL First Division
Milwaukee Wave United	Soccer	2003-2004	USL First Division

Polish Americans, like other second-generation immigrants, embraced baseball both as a children's game and as fans. On the Polish south side there were many baseball clubs, including the well-known semipro team, the Kosciuszko Reds. The Kosciuszko club owed its support to Louis Fons, a Polish American real estate developer and baseball enthusiast. The team had a loyal fan base, a home field at South Side Park, and a secure place in the Lake Shore League, a semipro league of top teams in southeastern Wisconsin and northeastern Illinois. After many successful years, the Reds began to decline, due in part to the impact of World War I and in part to Fons's election to the Wisconsin legislature and loss of interest in the team. By 1920 the team disappeared off the roster of the Lake Shore League and its baseball park was torn down.

The early 20th century Milwaukee Brewers's time in the American League predates the league's evolution into a major league, going back to the 19th century to its predecessors, the Western Association and Western League. The minor league Milwaukee Brewers minor league|Milwaukee Brewers was not directly connected to the older team. In fact, there was concern at the time about the prospect of both teams simultaneously playing in 1901 or 1902. It should also be noted that the 19th century baseball teams in Milwaukee were interchangebly referred to as the Cream Citys, Milwaukee Brewers, Milwaukee Greys or Milwaukee Unions.[1] This was common during the time as most teams did not have official names and rather adopted names which reporters assigned to them. The table lists the most common name used for each particular team.

The Milwaukee Braves won the National League pennant in 1957 and 1958, and won the World Series in 1957. The Brewers made their first post-season appearance in 1981 and won the American League pennant in 1982.

The Green Bay Packers played a portion of their home schedule in Milwaukee on a regular basis since in the 1930's in the following locations:

• Borchert Field, 1933
• Wisconsin State Fair Park, 1934-51
• Marquette Stadium, 1952
• Milwaukee County Stadium, 1953-1994

The first Milwaukee game was played on December 3, 1922, against the Racine Legion; the last on December 18, 1994, against the Atlanta Falcons. The 1939 Championship between the Packers and the New York Giants was played at State Fair Park. The Packers won, 27-0.

The Milwaukee suburb of West Allis is home to the Milwaukee Mile auto racing facility, the oldest active auto race track in the United States, located on the Wisconsin State Fair Park|Wisconsin State Fair Grounds. Also near the Fair Grounds is the Pettit National Ice Center, a U.S. Olympic Team training facility.

Education

Of residents over 25 in 2000, 84.5% have a high school diploma, and 27% have a bachelor's degree or higher.

Milwaukee Public Schools is the largest school district in Wisconsin and one of the largest in the nation. As of 2006, it has an enrollment of 95,600 students and employs 6,100 full-time and substitute teachers in 223 schools. Milwaukee Public Schools operate as magnet schools, with individualized specialty areas for interests in academics, or the arts. Golda Meir School, Milwaukee School of Languages, Milwaukee High School of the Arts, and Lynde & Harry Bradley Technology and Trade School are just some examples of the magnet schools in Milwaukee. In addition to its public schools, Milwaukee is home to a large number of parochial schools, including over two dozen private high schools and hundreds of private middle and elementary schools.

The district has a reputation for a poorly performing student body and efforts have been underway for years to reform the school system. School District officials note declining funding as a catalyst to problems in the district.

The school choice program, using vouchers, started with the support of former governor Tommy Thompson has given some students the opportunity to study at parochial and other private schools free of tuition cost, although the program remains the topic of considerable controversy.

Parochial schools, both Catholic and Lutheran, flourish. In 1948, the Sisters of the Divine Savior founded an all-girls high school with a curriculum designed to educate young women to be good citizens and good Catholics. Heavy in religious courses, the curriculum was strong in homemaking classes as well. Although students were encouraged to train for careers in teaching or other vocations, the desired outcome in all cases was for them to become "proper women."

Higher education in Milwaukee is dominated by the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee on the East Side and Marquette University, located near downtown. Private colleges and universities include Alverno College, Cardinal Stritch University, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee Area Technical College, Milwaukee Institute of Art and Design, Milwaukee School of Engineering, Mount Mary College, and Wisconsin Lutheran College, collectively giving the city a full-time, degree seeking college student population exceeding approximately 70,000. Thus, Milwaukee has the largest student population in the state. Many locals attend university outside the area, especially the University of Wisconsin campuses at Madison, Whitewater and Parkside.

Media

Milwaukee's leading newspaper is the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. The most prominent weekly is Shepherd Express, a free publication. Other local newspapers, city guides and magazines with large distributions include Milwaukee Magazine, MKE, and The Onion. OnMilwaukee.com is an online magazine providing news and events.

Milwaukee is well served by local television and radio. Milwaukee's major network television affiliates are WTMJ-TV (NBC), WITI-TV (Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox), WISN-TV (ABC), WVTV (The CW Television Network), WCGV (MyNetworkTV), and WDJT-TV (CBS). WMLW 41 is a popular independent commercial station in Milwaukee largely due to its coverage of local collegiate sports teams. Spanish language programming is on WYTU-LP (Telemundo). Milwaukee's PBS stations are WMVS-TVand WMVT-TV.

There are numerous radio stations throughout Milwaukee and the surrounding area.

Bibliography

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• Bowers, Jr., Paul C. Byron Kilbourn and the Development of Milwaukee (2001)
• Buenker, John D. "'Neoteching' Milwaukee: the Cream City's Emergence as an Industrial Metropolis, 1886-1919." Milwaukee History 2004 27(1-2): 4-40. Issn: 0163-7622
• Cochran, Thomas C. The Pabst Brewing Company: The History of an American Business (1948) online edition
• Culter, Richard W. Greater Milwaukee's Growing Pains, 1950-2000: An Insider's View (2001)
• Dougherty, Jack. More than One Struggle: The Evolution of Black School Reform in Milwaukee. (2004). 288 pp. online review
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