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| '''[[Gut-brain signalling]]''' describes the interaction between the gastrointestinal tract and the brain, and how secretion of varying hormones from different areas of the body causes appetite-enhancing and satiety signals to be sent to the brain. The hormones that have been most intensely studied are: ghrelin, obestatin, cholecystokinin (CCK), GLP-1, peptide YY (PYY) and insulin which all play major roles in appetite regulation. The vagus nerve is also a key mediator of regulation, and all of these inputs are processed by areas in the brain such as the hypothalamus and the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS).
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| ===Anorexic Signals=== | | ==Footnotes== |
| {{Image|diagram 3.jpg|center|350px|''Gut-Brain signaling Pathways'' Proteins and hormones activate brain pathways in different ways, either by eventual vagal activation or through peripheral circulation. The nucleus tractus solitarii and the arcuate nucleus are then activated. }} | | {{reflist|2}} |
| '''Cholecystokinin''' (CCK) is a peptide hormone synthesised by L-cells in the mucosal epithelium of the duodenum, and secreted in response to the presence of partly digested lipids and protein]]s. CCK inhibits gastric emptying and stimulates the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the gall bladder by acting at CCK-A receptors (mainly found in the periphery but also found in some areas of the CNS). Because gastric emptying is inhibited, the partly digested lipids and proteins are exposed to the digestive enzymes and bile so are further broken down. As the lipids and proteins are broken down, CCK secretion declines.
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| CCK acts as a ‘gatekeeper’ for the response of other gut-brain signalling hormones on the afferent vagal neurons. At low levels (after fasting), CCK stimulates the expression of receptors associated with the stimulation of food intake, including receptors for melanin concentrating hormone (MCH)-1 and cannabinoid CB1 receptors. At high levels (after food consumption), MCH-1 and CB1 receptors are down- regulated. Therefore CCK, at a high or low concentration, can affect how afferent vagal neurons respond to other neurohormones.
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| In rats, CCK inhibits food intake in younger individuals more effectively than in older individuals. It also has a greater effect in males than in females.
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| '''Glucagon-like peptide-1''' (GLP-1) is a hormone secreted from L-cells in the mucosal epithelium of the duodenum and small intestine. It is derived from the ''pro-glucagon'' gene, and is secreted into the circulation in response to the presence of nutrients. It acts at the pancreas, where it stimulates insulin secretion and suppresses glucagon secretion. It also increases insulin sensitivity. GLP-1 also activates anorexigenic neurons in the arcuate nucleus via the caudal brainstem. Activation of these neurons induces satiety and decreases food intake/hunger. It also decreases gastric emptying, so adds to the feeling of being ‘full’. At higher concentrations, GLP-1 causes nausea, and can induce conditioned taste aversion, where the brain associates the taste of a certain food with being toxic (usually after an individual consumes a food that had made them sick).
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Latest revision as of 10:19, 11 September 2020
1901 photograph of a stentor (announcer) at the Budapest
Telefon Hirmondó.
Telephone newspaper is a general term for the telephone-based news and entertainment services which were introduced beginning in the 1890s, and primarily located in large European cities. These systems were the first example of electronic broadcasting, and offered a wide variety of programming, however, only a relative few were ever established. Although these systems predated the invention of radio, they were supplanted by radio broadcasting stations beginning in the 1920s, primarily because radio signals were able to cover much wider areas with higher quality audio.
History
After the electric telephone was introduced in the mid-1870s, it was mainly used for personal communication. But the idea of distributing entertainment and news appeared soon thereafter, and many early demonstrations included the transmission of musical concerts. In one particularly advanced example, Clément Ader, at the 1881 Paris Electrical Exhibition, prepared a listening room where participants could hear, in stereo, performances from the Paris Grand Opera. Also, in 1888, Edward Bellamy's influential novel Looking Backward: 2000-1887 foresaw the establishment of entertainment transmitted by telephone lines to individual homes.
The scattered demonstrations were eventually followed by the establishment of more organized services, which were generally called Telephone Newspapers, although all of these systems also included entertainment programming. However, the technical capabilities of the time meant that there were limited means for amplifying and transmitting telephone signals over long distances, so listeners had to wear headphones to receive the programs, and service areas were generally limited to a single city. While some of the systems, including the Telefon Hirmondó, built their own one-way transmission lines, others, including the Electrophone, used standard commercial telephone lines, which allowed subscribers to talk to operators in order to select programming. The Telephone Newspapers drew upon a mixture of outside sources for their programs, including local live theaters and church services, whose programs were picked up by special telephone lines, and then retransmitted to the subscribers. Other programs were transmitted directly from the system's own studios. In later years, retransmitted radio programs were added.
During this era telephones were expensive luxury items, so the subscribers tended to be the wealthy elite of society. Financing was normally done by charging fees, including monthly subscriptions for home users, and, in locations such as hotel lobbies, through the use of coin-operated receivers, which provided short periods of listening for a set payment. Some systems also accepted paid advertising.
