Contrast-induced nephropathy

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In medicine, contrast-induced nephropathy is acute kidney injury from radiocontrast. It is defined as either a greater than 25% increase of serum creatinine or an absolute increase in serum creatinine of 0.5 mg/dL.[1]

Who is at risk?

Factors associated with an increased risk of contrast-induced nephropathy are:[2][3]

A clinical prediction rule is available to estimate probability of nephropathy (increase =25% and/or =0.5 mg/dl in serum creatinine at 48 h)[5]:

Risk Factors:

  • Systolic blood pressure <80 mm Hg - 5 points
  • Intraarterial balloon pump - 5 points
  • Congestive heart failure (Class III-IV or history of pulmonary edema) - 5 points
  • Age >75 y - 4 points
  • Hematocrit level <39% for men and <35% for women - 3 points
  • Diabetes - 3 points
  • Radiocontrast media volume - 1 point for each 100 mL
  • Renal insufficiency:
    • Serum creatinine level >1.5 g/dL - 4 points
or
  • 2 for 40–60 mL/min/1.73 m2
  • 4 for 20–40 mL/min/1.73 m2
  • 6 for < 20 mL/min/1.73 m2

Scoring:
5 or less points

  • Risk of CIN - 7.5
  • Risk of Dialysis - 0.04%

6–10 points

  • Risk of CIN - 14.0
  • Risk of Dialysis - 0.12%

11–16 points

  • Risk of CIN - 26.1*
  • Risk of Dialysis - 1.09%

>16 points

  • Risk of CIN - 57.3
  • Risk of Dialysis - 12.8%

Prevention

To minimize the risk for contrast-induced nephropathy, various actions can be taken if the patient has predisposing conditions. These have been reviewed in meta-analyses[6][7], although none of the meta-analyses include the more recent randomized controlled trial[8]. A separate meta-analysis addresses interventions in for emergent patients with baseline renal insufficiency.[9]

Choice of radiocontrast agent

Iso-osmolar, nonionic radiocontrast media may be the best according to a randomized controlled trial.[10]

Hypo-osmolar, non-ionic radiocontrast agents are beneficial if iso-osmolar, nonionic contrast media is not available due to costs.[11]

Hydration with or without bicarbonate

Randomized controlled trials of sodium bicarbonate[12][13][14][8]
Study name or
first author
Patients Intervention Primary outcomes Conclusion
Definition Rate in control group Rate in intervention group
Merten (2004)[12] 119 patients with kidney disease (serum creatinine at least 1.1 mg/dL). Mean GFR was 41 mL/min per 1.73 m2 • 3 mL/kg per hour for 1 hour before contrast
• 1 mL/kg per hour for 6 hours during and after contrast
> 25% rise in serum creatinine within 2 days 13.6% 1.7% Bicarb is beneficial
REMEDIAL (2007)[13] 219 patients with kidney disease (serum creatinine at least 2.0 mg/dL or GFR 40 mL/min per 1.73 m2 or less) undergoing coronary and/or peripheral procedures.
All patients received NAC
• 3 mL/kg per hour for 1 hour before contrast
• 1 mL/kg per hour for 6 hours during and after contrast
Controls received isotonic saline:
• 3 mL/kg per hour for 1 hour before contrast
• 1 mL/kg per hour for 6 hours during and after contrast
> 25% rise in serum creatinine within 2 days 9.9% 1.9% Bicarb is beneficial
Maioli (2008)[14] 502 patients with kidney disease (creatinine clearance 60 mL/min per 1.73 m2 or less; mean GFR was 48 mL/min per 1.73 m2) undergoing coronary angiography
All patients received NAC
• 3 mL/kg per hour for 1 hour before contrast
• 1 mL/kg per hour for 6 hours after contrast
Controls received:
• isotonic saline 1 ml/kg/hr for 12 hours pre/post contrast
0.5 mg/dl rise in creatinine within 5 days 11.5% 10% Bicarb is not beneficial
Brar (2008)[8] 353 patients with kidney disease (GFR 60 mL/min per 1.73 m2 or less; mean creatinine clearance was 36 - 39 mL/min) undergoing coronary angiography or intervention • 3 mL/kg per hour for 1 hour before contrast
• 1.5 mL/kg per hour for 4 hours during and after contrast
Controls received isotonic saline:
• 3 mL/kg per hour for 1 hour before contrast
• 1.5 mL/kg per hour for 4 hours during and after contrast
> > 25% fall in GFR within 4 days 14.6% 13.3% Bicarb is not beneficial

Administration of sodium bicarbonate 3 mL/kg per hour for 1 hour before , followed by 1 mL/kg per hour for 6 hours after contrast was found superior to plain saline on one randomized controlled trial of patients with a creatinne of at least 1.1 mg/dL (97.2 µmol/L) .[12] To make the solution, the study used 154 mL of 1000 mEq/L sodium bicarbonate to 846 mL of 5% dextrose. This is approximately three 50 ml ampules of bicarbonate in 850 ml of water with 5% dextrose. This was subsequently corroborated by a multi-center randomized controlled trial, which also demonstrated that IV hydration with sodium bicarbonate was superior to 0.9% normal saline[13]. The renoprotective effects of bicarbonate are thought to be due to urinary alkalinization, which creates an environment less amenable to the formation of harmful free radicals.[15].

Alternatively, one randomized controlled trial of patients with a creatinine over 1.6 mg per deciliter (140 µmol per liter) or creatinine clearance below 60 ml per minute used 1 ml/kg of 0.45 percent saline per per hour for 6-12 hours before and after the contrast.[16]

Methylxanthines

Adenosine antagonists such as the methylxanthines theophylline and aminophylline, may help[9] although studies have conflicting results.[17] The best studied dose is 200 mg of theophylline given IV 30 minutes before contrast administration.[18][19]

N-acetylcysteine

N-acetylcysteine (NAC) 600 mg orally twice a day, on the day before and of the procedure if creatinine clearance is estimated to be less than 60 mL/min [1.00 mL/s]) may reduce nephropathy.[20]. A randomized controlled trial found higher doses of NAC (1200-mg IV bolus and 1200 mg orally twice daily for 2 days) benefited (relative risk reduction of 74%) patients receiving coronary angioplasty with higher volumes of contrast[21].

Since publication of the meta-analyses, two small and underpowered negative studies, one of IV NAC[22] and one of 600 mg give four times around coronary angiography[23], found statistically insignificant trends towards benefit.

Some authors believe the benefit is not overwhelming.[24] The strongest results were from an unblinded randomized controlled trial that used NAC intravenously.[25] A systematic review by Clinical Evidence concluded that NAC is "likely to beneficial" but did not recommend a specific dose.[26] One study found that the apparent benefits of NAC may be due to its interference with the creatinine laboratory test itself.[27] This is supported by a lack of correlation between creatinine levels and cystatin C levels.

In one study 15% of patients receiving NAC intravenously had allergic reactions.[25]

Prophylactic hemodialysis

Randomized controlled trials found benefit from prophylactic hemodialysis for patients with chronic kidney disease and a creatinine over 309.4 µmol/L (3.5 mg.dl) who have elective coronary catheterization, .[28][29]

Other interventions

Other pharmacological agents, such as furosemide, mannitol, dopamine, and atrial natriuretic peptide have been tried, but have either not had beneficial effects, or had detrimental effects.[16][30]

References

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