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| == '''[[Japanese English]]''' ==
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| '''Japanese English''' (JE) refers to the varieties of [[English language|English]] mainly used by non-[[native speaker]]s whose first language is [[Japanese language|Japanese]], usually in [[Japan]]. This may include English learned as a [[language learning|foreign language]], its fashionable use in the [[media]] and [[advertising]] (often disparagingly called 'Engrish' to mimic how Japanese-speakers non-fluent in English may pronounce 'English'), or the use of English as a working language in certain institutions such as research centres or publications like the ''[[Japan Times]]''.
| | ==Footnotes== |
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| When used for a communicative purpose, such as in English-language [[newspaper]]s, this variety is typically very similar to [[American English]] in [[vocabulary]], [[grammar]] and [[spelling]]. However, there are a number of words used in JE which either originate in Japan or have developed a separate meaning: for example, ''prefecture'' does not refer to a political district in native English-speaking nations. ''[[Police box]]'' is used as the translation for 交番 ''[[kooban]]'', but in fact this is a local police station, rather than a callbox specifically for contacting the [[police]], as in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. Another example is ''dust box'', Japanese English for what many English speakers might call a ''waste bin'' or a ''trash can''. The expression rarely appears in Japanese itself, which prefers 塵箱 ''gomibako''.<ref>''about.com'': '[http://japanese.about.com/library/blpod071300.htm Japanese phrase of the day (useful Japanese phrases) - Gomi o dasu].' ごみを出す ''Gomi o dasu'' means 'take out the rubbish/garbage'.</ref>Additionally, many English words exist in [[Japanese language|Japanese]], but these [[loanword]]s are considered part of its vocabulary, just as many Japanese words such as ''karate'' form part of English.
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| An alternative term sometimes applied to JE is ''Japlish''. Since ''Jap'' is [[racism|racist]] English [[slang]] for a [[Japanese people|Japanese person]], many authors may avoid this term. Alternatively, it has been used to refer to a special set of English loanwords in Japanese itself (和製英語 ''wasei-eigo'' - literally 'made-in-Japan English') - words not used in a way that English speakers would readily understand.<ref>For example, in Murray (1999), which includes a section on ''wasei-eigo''. One example of this is ''desuku'' (デスク) from English ''desk'', which is actually a title for a [[journalism|journalist]]. In Japanese, job titles can be used as forms of address, with the [[honorific]] ''-san'' (-さん). It is therefore acceptable to refer to a journalist, for example, as ''desuku-san'' (literally 'Mr Desk'). These words are subject to Japanese grammar just as a native item would be; e.g. they can form compounds with Japanese words, and the meaning may differ, as in ''famikon'' (ファミコン) 'family computer', meaning 'games console'. ''Wasei-eigo'' words are usually written in ''[[katakana]]'', though occasionally other scripts may be used, as in ''purinto kurabu'' (プリント倶楽部) - i.e. 'print club' (a special kind of [[photo booth]]), the full form of ''[[Japanese popular culture#Purikura|purikura]]'' (プリクラ).</ref>
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| ''[[Japanese English|.... (read more)]]''
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| ! style="text-align: center;" | [[Japanese English#Footnotes|notes]]
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| {{reflist|2}} | | {{reflist|2}} |
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Latest revision as of 10:19, 11 September 2020
1901 photograph of a stentor (announcer) at the Budapest
Telefon Hirmondó.
Telephone newspaper is a general term for the telephone-based news and entertainment services which were introduced beginning in the 1890s, and primarily located in large European cities. These systems were the first example of electronic broadcasting, and offered a wide variety of programming, however, only a relative few were ever established. Although these systems predated the invention of radio, they were supplanted by radio broadcasting stations beginning in the 1920s, primarily because radio signals were able to cover much wider areas with higher quality audio.
History
After the electric telephone was introduced in the mid-1870s, it was mainly used for personal communication. But the idea of distributing entertainment and news appeared soon thereafter, and many early demonstrations included the transmission of musical concerts. In one particularly advanced example, Clément Ader, at the 1881 Paris Electrical Exhibition, prepared a listening room where participants could hear, in stereo, performances from the Paris Grand Opera. Also, in 1888, Edward Bellamy's influential novel Looking Backward: 2000-1887 foresaw the establishment of entertainment transmitted by telephone lines to individual homes.
The scattered demonstrations were eventually followed by the establishment of more organized services, which were generally called Telephone Newspapers, although all of these systems also included entertainment programming. However, the technical capabilities of the time meant that there were limited means for amplifying and transmitting telephone signals over long distances, so listeners had to wear headphones to receive the programs, and service areas were generally limited to a single city. While some of the systems, including the Telefon Hirmondó, built their own one-way transmission lines, others, including the Electrophone, used standard commercial telephone lines, which allowed subscribers to talk to operators in order to select programming. The Telephone Newspapers drew upon a mixture of outside sources for their programs, including local live theaters and church services, whose programs were picked up by special telephone lines, and then retransmitted to the subscribers. Other programs were transmitted directly from the system's own studios. In later years, retransmitted radio programs were added.
During this era telephones were expensive luxury items, so the subscribers tended to be the wealthy elite of society. Financing was normally done by charging fees, including monthly subscriptions for home users, and, in locations such as hotel lobbies, through the use of coin-operated receivers, which provided short periods of listening for a set payment. Some systems also accepted paid advertising.
