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'''Christmas''' is an annual holiday held on December 25 that marks the birth of [[Jesus]], the central figure of [[Christianity]]. Christmas traditions include the display of Nativity scenes, holly and Christmas trees, the exchange of gifts and cards, and the arrival of [[Father Christmas]] or [[Santa Claus]].
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In Western countries, Christmas has become the most economically significant holiday of the year. The popularity of Christmas can be traced in part to its status as a winter festival. Many cultures have their most important holiday in winter because there is less agricultural work to do at this time. Examples of winter festivals that may have influenced Christmas include the pagan festivals of [[Yule]] and [[Saturnalia]].
[[Image:Leech_ghostpresent_big.jpg|thumbnail|350px|right|"The Ghost Engine of Christmas Present", an illustration from [[Charles Dickens]]'s novel ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' (1843).]]
'''Christmas''' has two main meanings:  one, ''Christmas Day'', an annual national holiday held on December 25 in many countries, and two, ''Christmastide'', also known as ''The Twelve Days of Christmas'', a holy season that marks the birth of [[Jesus]], the central figure of [[Christianity]]. Christmas traditions include the display of Nativity scenes, [[holly]] and Christmas trees, the exchange of gifts and cards, and the arrival of [[Father Christmas]] or [[Santa Claus]], also called [[Saint Nicholas]]. In addition, religious observances include special church services, the singing of particular [[hymn]]s and [[Christmas carol|carols]] and Nativity plays.  Christmas has inspired a wide range of music, literature and performance art.


Certain [[Orthodox Church]]es celebrate Christmas on January 7, the date on the [[Gregorian calendar]] which corresponds to December 25 on the [[Julian Calendar]]. The December 25 date is merely traditional. The actual date of the birth of Jesus is unknown.<ref>The Oxford Dictionary of Christian Church, Oxford University Press, London (1977), p. 280.</ref>
In Western countries, Christmas has become the most economically significant holiday of the year. In the United States, the holiday of [[Thanksgiving]] marks the beginning of the Christmas season, although shopkeepers may begin Christmas marketing several weeks before this, and continue promotions through the "after-Christmas sales" of January.


The modern celebration of Christmas blends modern religious and ancient pagan elements.  The origins of Christmas can be traced in part to pre-Christian winter festivals. Many cultures have their most important holiday in winter because there is less agricultural work to do at this time. Examples of winter festivals that may have influenced Christmas include the pagan festivals of [[Yule]] and [[Saturnalia]].<ref>Flanders, J (2017). ''Christmas: A Biography''. London: Picador.</ref>
In most observances, the Christmas season begins on December 25 and ends on the Feast of the Epiphany, January 6th, although this date is merely traditional, as the actual date of the birth of Jesus is unknown.<ref>The Oxford Dictionary of Christian Church, Oxford University Press, London (1977), p. 280.</ref>  Most [[Orthodox Church]]es celebrate Christmas on January 7, the date on the Gregorian calendar which corresponds to December 25 on the Julian Calendar.
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==Etymology==     
==Etymology==     
The word "Christmas" is a contraction meaning "Christ's Mass." It is derived from the Middle English ''Christemasse'' and Old English ''Cristes mæsse,'' a phrase first recorded in 1038.<ref name="CathChrit">[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03724b.htm "Christmas"], ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'', 1913.</ref> [[Dutch language|Dutch]] has a similar word, ''Kerstmis'' often shortened to ''Kerst''. The words for the holiday in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (''navidad''), [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (''natal''), [[Polish language|Polish]] (''Boże Narodzenie''), [[French language|French]] (''noël''), Italian (''natale''), and Catalan (''nadal'') refer more explicitly to the Nativity. In contrast, the German name ''Weihnachten'' means simply "hallowed night." The Anglo-Saxons referred to Christmas as ''geol''<ref name="CathChrit"/>, the name of a pre-Christian winter festival from which the current English word "[[Yule]]" is derived.  
The word "Christmas" is a contraction of "Christ's Mass." It is derived from the Middle English ''Christemasse'' and Old English ''Cristes mæsse.''<ref name="CathChrit">[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03724b.htm "Christmas"], ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'', 1913.</ref> Dutch has a similar word, ''Kerstmis'' often shortened to ''Kerst''. The words for the holiday in Spanish (''navidad''), Portuguese (''natal''), Polish (''Boże Narodzenie''), French (''noël''), and Italian (''natale''), refer explicitly to the Nativity. In contrast, the German name ''Weihnachten'' means simply "hallowed night." The Anglo-Saxons referred to Christmas as ''geol'',<ref name="CathChrit"/> the name of a pre-Christian winter festival from which the current English word "Yule" is derived.


Christmas is sometimes shortened to ''Xmas'', an abbreviation that has a long history.<ref name="Bratcher">Bratcher, Dennis. [http://www.crivoice.org/cyxmas.html "The Christmas Season"] ''The Voice,'' CRI/Voice, Institute, 2006.</ref> In early Greek versions of the New Testament, the letter ''Χ'' (chi), is the first letter of Christ (''Χριστός''). Since the mid-sixteenth century ''Χ'', or the similar Roman letter X, has been used as an abbreviation for Christ.<ref>[http://www.askoxford.com/pressroom/archive/xmas Oxford English Dictionary]</ref>
Christmas is sometimes shortened to ''Xmas'', an abbreviation that has a long history.<ref name="Bratcher">Bratcher, Dennis. [http://www.crivoice.org/cyxmas.html "The Christmas Season"] ''The Voice,'' CRI/Voice, Institute, 2006.</ref> In early Greek versions of the New Testament, the letter ''Χ'' (chi), is the first letter of Christ (''Χριστός''). Since the mid-sixteenth century ''Χ'', or the similar Roman letter X, has been used as an abbreviation for Christ.<ref>[http://www.askoxford.com/pressroom/archive/xmas Oxford English Dictionary]</ref>
{{Image|Adorazione del Bambino - Beato Angelico.jpg|left|250px|''Adorazione del Bambino'' ''(Adoration of the Child)'' (1439-43), a mural by Florentine painter Fra Angelico.}}


==The Nativity==
==The Nativity==
[[Image:Adorazione del Bambino - Beato Angelico.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Adorazione del Bambino'' ''(Adoration of the Child)'' (1439-43), a mural by Florentine painter [[Fra Angelico]].]]


The Nativity refers to the birth of Jesus. The Bible contains two accounts of the nativity, one in the Gospel of Matthew<ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%1:18-2:12;&version=50; Matthew 1:18-2:12]</ref> and the other in the Gospel of Luke<ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%1:26-56;&version=50; Luke 1:26-56]</ref>. According to these accounts, Jesus was born to Mary, assisted by her husband Joseph, in the town of [[Bethlehem]]. The birth took place in a "stable", surrounded by farm animals, and the infant Jesus was laid in a manger. Shepherds from the fields surrounding Bethlehem were told of the birth by an angel, and were the first to see the child.<ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%202:1-16;&version=50; Luke 2:1-6]</ref> Christians believe that the birth of Jesus fulfilled prophecies made hundreds of years before his birth.
The Gospel of Matthew<ref> Matthew 2:18-25 [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%1:18-2:12;&version=50; Matthew 1:18-2:12]</ref> and the Gospel of Luke<ref>Luke 1:26-38; 2:1-7 [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%1:26-56;&version=50; Luke 1:26-56]</ref> each contains a distinct version of the Nativity story. According to these accounts, Jesus was born to Mary, assisted by her husband Joseph, in the town of Bethlehem (literally the "House of bread", also called "David's City", a place of historical importance to the ancient Jews). Because Luke's version mentions that the infant Jesus was laid in a "manger", a hay-filled animal feeder, the birth is presumed to have taken place in a stable of sorts, with the Holy Family surrounded by farm animals. Shepherds from the fields surrounding Bethlehem were told of the birth by an angel, and were the first to see the child.<ref> Luke 2:8-20 [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%202:1-16;&version=50; Luke 2:1-6]</ref> Christians believe that the birth of Jesus fulfilled prophecies made hundreds of years before his birth.  Later,  three "wise men from the East" (known in Christian tradition as ''The Magi'', the ''Three Wise Men'' or ''[[The Three Kings]]'') visited as well, <ref> Matthew 2: 1-12 </ref> bringing expensive gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh.  These wise men are traditionally referred to as Caspar, Melchior, and Balthazar, although their names and number are not referred to in the Biblical narrative.  They are said to have followed a star, known as the [[Star of Bethlehem]] to Jerusalem, and found Jesus, whom they believed to be "the King of the Jews".  Matthew's narrative includes a political aside involving King Herod of Judea being troubled and jealous at the thought of the birth of another king.


Remembering or re-creating the Nativity is a central way that Christians celebrate Christmas. The Orthodox Church practices the Nativity Fast in anticipation of the birth of Jesus, while much of the Western Church celebrates Advent. In some Christian churches, children perform plays re-telling the events of the Nativity, or sing carols that reference the event. Some Christians also display a small re-creation of the Nativity, known as a Nativity scene, in their homes, using figurines to portray the key characters of the event. Live Nativity scenes are also performed, using actors and live animals to portray the event with more realism.<ref>Krug, Nora. [http://travel2.nytimes.com/2005/11/25/travel/escapes/25ahead.html?ex=1165381200&en=58ee42b3737ff438&ei=5070 "Little Towns of Bethlehem"], ''The New York Times'', November 25, 2005.</ref>
Remembering or re-creating the Nativity is a central way that Christians celebrate Christmas. The Orthodox Church practices the Nativity Fast in anticipation of the birth of Jesus, while much of the Western Church observes [[Advent]]. In many Christian churches, congregants perform plays re-telling the events of the Nativity; in some churches it a tradition that these Nativity plays are performed by children. Some Christians also display a small re-creation of the Nativity, known as a Nativity Scene, in their homes, using figurines to portray the key characters of the event. Live Nativity  
Scenes are also performed, using actors and live animals to portray the event with more realism.<ref>Krug, Nora. [http://travel2.nytimes.com/2005/11/25/travel/escapes/25ahead.html?ex=1165381200&en=58ee42b3737ff438&ei=5070 "Little Towns of Bethlehem"], ''The New York Times'', November 25, 2005.</ref>


Nativity scenes traditionally include the Magi or Three Wise Men, Balthazar, Melchior, and Caspar, although their names and number are not referred to in the Biblical narrative. They are said to have followed a star, known as the [[Star of Bethlehem]], found Jesus, and presented gifts of gold, frankincense, and [[myrrh]].<ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%202:1-11;&version=50; Matthew 2:1-11]</ref>
In the U.S., Christmas decorations at public buildings once commonly included Nativity scenes. This practice led to many lawsuits which argued that the practice amounted to a government endorsement of a religion. In 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a city-owned Christmas display, even one with a Nativity scene, does not violate the First Amendment.<ref name="Lynch">[http://www.belcherfoundation.org/lynch_v_donnelly.htm ''Lynch vs. Donnelly''] (1984)</ref>
 
In the U.S., Christmas decorations at [[Building|public buildings]] once commonly included Nativity scenes. This practice has led to many lawsuits, as some say it amounts to the government endorsing a religion. In 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a city-owned Christmas display, even one with a Nativity scene, does not violate the First Amendment.<ref name="Lynch">[http://www.belcherfoundation.org/lynch_v_donnelly.htm ''Lynch vs. Donnelly''] (1984)</ref>


==History==
==History==
===Origin of the festival===
The New Testament does not give a date for the birth for Jesus. The Romans considered December 25 to be the date of the winter solstice, which they called ''bruma''. Jesus was associated with solar days because he was identified with the "sun of righteousness."<ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Malachi%4:2;&version=50; Malachi 4:2].</ref> [[Sextus Julius Africanus]] popularized the idea that Jesus was born on December 25 in ''Chronographiai'' (AD 221), a now lost reference book for Christians.<ref name="Britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9082431/Christmas "Christmas], ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006.</ref> This date is nine months after the traditional date of the incarnation (March 25), now celebrated as the Feast of the Annunciation.<ref name="CathAnnun">[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01542a.htm "The Feast of the Annunciation"], ''Catholic Encyclopedia,'' 1998.</ref> On the Roman calendar, March 25 was the date of the vernal equinox and early Christians believed it was also the date that Jesus was crucified.<ref name="CathAnnun"/> The Christian idea that Jesus was conceived on the same date that he died is consistent with a Jewish belief that a prophet lived an integral number of years.<ref name="CathAnnun"/>


===Origin of festival===
The identification of the birthdate of Jesus did not at first inspire feasting or celebration. In 245, the theologian Origen denounced the idea of celebrating Jesus' birthday "as if he were a king pharaoh." He contended that only sinners, not saints, celebrated their birthdays.
[[Image:Origen3.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Origen]], a father of the Christian church, argued against the celebration of birthdays, including the birth of [[Christ]].]]


The New Testament does not give a date for the birth of Jesus. [[Sextus Julius Africanus]] popularized the idea that Jesus was born on December 25 in his ''Chronographiai'' (AD 221), a now lost reference book for Christians.<ref name="Britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9082431/Christmas "Christmas], ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006.</ref> This date is nine months after the traditional date of the incarnation (March 25), now celebrated as the Feast of the Annunciation.<ref name="CathAnnun">[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01542a.htm "The Feast of the Annunciation"], ''Catholic Encyclopedia,'' 1998.</ref> March 25 was also considered to be the date of the vernal equinox and therefore the creation of [[Adam]].<ref name="CathAnnun"/> Early Christians believed March 25 was also the date Jesus was [[crucifixion|crucified]].<ref name="CathAnnun"/> The Christian idea that Jesus was conceived on the same date that he died on the cross is consistent with a Jewish belief that a prophet lived an integral number of years.<ref name="CathAnnun"/> The Romans considered December 25 to be the date of the winter solstice, which they called ''bruma''. Jesus was associated with solar days because he was identified with the "son of righteousness."<ref>Malachi 4:2.</ref>
The earliest reference to the celebration of Christmas is in the Calendar of Filocalus, an illuminated manuscript compiled in Rome in 354.<ref name="CathChrit"/><ref>This document was prepared privately for a Roman aristocrat and is named after an artist who illuminated part of it. The reference to Christmas states, ''VIII kal. ian. natus Christus in Betleem Iudeæ''. It is in a section based on an earlier manuscript produced in 336.</ref> In the east, meanwhile, Christians celebrated the birth of Jesus as part of Epiphany (January 6), although this festival focused on the baptism of Jesus.<ref>Pokhilko, Hieromonk Nicholas, [http://orthodoxeurope.org/page/12/4.aspx "The Formation of Epiphany according to Different Traditions]</ref>


The identification of the birthdate of Jesus did not at first inspire feasting or celebration. [[Tertullian]] does not mention it as a major [[Calendar of saints|feast day]] in the [[African Rite|Church of Roman Africa]]. In 245, the theologian [[Origen]] denounced the idea of celebrating Jesus' birthday "as if he were a king [[pharaoh]]." He contended that only [[sin]]ners, not [[saint]]s, celebrated their birthdays.
Christmas was promoted in the east as part of the revival of [[Catholicism]] following the death of the pro-Arian Emperor Valens at the [[Battle of Adrianople]] in 378. The feast was introduced to [[Constantinople]] in 379, to [[Antioch]] in about 380, and to [[Alexandria]] in about 430. Christmas was especially controversial in fourth Constantinople, being the "fortress of Arianism," as [[Edward Gibbon]] described it. The feast disappeared after Gregory of Nazianzus resigned as bishop in 381, although it was reintroduced by [[John Chrysostom]] in about 400.<ref name="CathChrit"/> Over the course of time it was adopted by all the Eastern churches except the Armenian.
 
[[Image:Don Lorenzo Monaco 001.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Adoration of the Magi by [[Don Lorenzo Monaco]] (1422).]]
The earliest reference to the celebration of Christmas is in the [[Calendar of Filocalus]], an [[illuminated manuscript]] compiled in Rome in 354.<ref name="CathChrit"/><ref>This document was prepared privately for a Roman aristocrat and is named after an artist who illuminated part of it. The reference to Christmas states, "VIII kal. ian. natus Christus in Betleem Iudeæ". It is in a section based on an earlier manuscript produced in 336.</ref> In the east, meanwhile, Christians celebrated the birth of Jesus as part of [[Epiphany (Christian)|Epiphany]] (January 6), although this festival focused on the [[baptism of Jesus]].<ref>Pokhilko, Hieromonk Nicholas, [http://orthodoxeurope.org/page/12/4.aspx "The Formation of Epiphany according to Different Traditions]</ref>
 
Christmas was promoted in the east as part of the revival of [[Catholicism]] following the death of the pro-[[Arianism|Arian]] Emperor [[Valens]] at the [[Battle of Adrianople]] in 378. The feast was introduced to [[Constantinople]] in 379, to [[Antioch]] in about 380, and to [[Alexandria]] in about 430. Christmas was especially controversial in [[4th century]] Constantinople, being the "fortress of Arianism," as [[Edward Gibbon]] described it. The feast disappeared after [[Gregory of Nazianzus]] resigned as [[bishop]] in 381, although it was reintroduced by [[John Chrysostom]] in about 400.<ref name="CathChrit"/>


===Middle Ages===
===Middle Ages===
[[Image:Don Lorenzo Monaco 001.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Adoration of the Magi by [[Don Lorenzo Monaco]] (1422).]]
In the early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in the west focused on the visit of the magi.<ref name="Murray">Murray, Alexander, [http://www.historytoday.com/dt_main_allatonce.asp?gid=13022&aid=&tgid=&amid=13022&g13022=x&g9142=x&g30026=x&g20991=x&g21010=x&g19965=x&g19963=x&e=true "Medieval Christmas"], ''History Today'', December 1986, '''36''' (12), pp. 31 - 39.</ref> But the Medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin," now known as [[Advent]].<ref name="Murray"/> In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent.<ref name="Murray"/>
In the early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in the west focused on the visit of the magi. But the Medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin" (which began on November 11, the feast of St. Martin of Tours), now known as [[Advent]].<ref name="Murray">Murray, Alexander, [http://www.historytoday.com/dt_main_allatonce.asp?gid=13022&aid=&tgid=&amid=13022&g13022=x&g9142=x&g30026=x&g20991=x&g21010=x&g19965=x&g19963=x&e=true "Medieval Christmas"], ''History Today'', [[1986|December 1986]], '''36''' (12), pp. 31 - 39.</ref> In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent.<ref name="Murray"/>


The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after [[Charlemagne]] was crowned on Christmas Day in 800. This may reflect a transfer from Yule, a northern European festival which was rescheduled to correspond with Christmas around this time. King [[William I of England]] was crowned on Christmas Day 1066.
The gradual increase in the prominence of Christmas Day may reflect the influence of Yule, a pre-Christian northern European festival which was rescheduled to correspond with Christmas. [[Charlemagne]] was crowned on Christmas Day in 800 and King [[William I of England]] was crowned on Christmas Day 1066.


Around the twelfth century, the hedonistic traditions of Saturnalia transferred again to the "twelve days of Christmas" (December 26 - January 6).<ref name="Murray"/>, possible due to the influence of Yule. The evening of January 5 was called "twelfth night," a festival later celebrated in the play of that name by [[William Shakespeare]]. The fortieth day after Christmas was Candlemas.  
Around the twelfth century, the hedonistic traditions of Saturnalia transferred again to the "twelve days of Christmas" (December 25 - January 5).<ref name="Murray"/> The evening of January 5 was called "twelfth night," a festival later celebrated by William Shakespeare in a play of that name.


By the High Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which twenty-eight oxen and three hundred sheep were eaten.<ref name="Murray"/> The "Yule boar" was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts. Caroling also became popular, and was originally a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form.<ref name="Murray"/> "Misrule" — drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling — was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on [[New Year's Day]], and there was special Christmas ale.<ref name="Murray"/>
{{Image|Worship_of_the_shepherds_by_bronzino.jpg|right|250px| ''Adoration by the shepherds'', by Florentine painter Angelo Bronzino (1503 - 1572).}}
 
By the High Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas.<ref name="Murray"/> King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which twenty-eight oxen and three hundred sheep were eaten.<ref name="Murray"/> The "Yule boar" was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts.<ref name="Murray"/> Caroling was also popular.<ref name="Murray"/> This was originally a group of dancers who sang.<ref name="Murray"/> The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus.<ref name="Murray"/> Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, so perhaps the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule continued in this form.<ref name="Murray"/> "Misrule" — drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling — was also an important aspect of the festival.<ref name="Murray"/> Indeed, in some locations, a "Lord of Misrule" was appointed - a commoner or serf put in charge for the feast.  This is possibly the origin of the paper crown present in modern day Christmas crackers.  In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day and there was special Christmas ale.<ref name="Murray"/>
Often the "misrule" got quite out of hand. Revelers would knock at a door and demand the best portion of their host's food and ale, with "severe consequences" if he did not agree.
[[Image:FatherChristmastrial.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Excerpt from [[Josiah King]]'s ''The Examination and Tryal of Father Christmas'' (1686), published shortly after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in [[England]].]]


===The Reformation and the 1800s===
===The Reformation and the 1800s===
{{Image|FatherChristmastrial.jpg|right|250px|Excerpt from Josiah King's ''The Examination and Tryal of Father Christmas'' (1686), published shortly after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England.}}


During the Reformation, Protestants condemned Christmas celebration as "trappings of popery" and the "rags of the Beast". The Catholic Church responded by promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. Following the Parliamentary victory over King Charles I during the English Civil War, England's [[Puritan]] rulers banned Christmas (1647). Pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities, and for several weeks [[Canterbury]] was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans.<ref name="Durston">Durston, Chris, [http://www.historytoday.com/dt_main_allatonce.asp?gid=12890&aid=&tgid=&amid=12890&g12890=x&g9130=x&g30026=x&g20991=x&g21010=x&g19965=x&g19963=x "Lords of Misrule: The Puritan War on Christmas 1642-60"], ''History Today'', [[1985|December 1985]], '''35''' (12) pp. 7 - 14.</ref> The [[English Restoration|Restoration]] of 1660 ended the ban, but most of the [[Anglican]] clergy still disapproved of Christmas celebration.
During the Reformation, Protestants condemned Christmas celebration as "trappings of popery" and the "rags of the Beast".<ref name="Durston">Durston, Chris, [http://www.historytoday.com/dt_main_allatonce.asp?gid=12890&aid=&tgid=&amid=12890&g12890=x&g9130=x&g30026=x&g20991=x&g21010=x&g19965=x&g19963=x "Lords of Misrule: The Puritan War on Christmas 1642-60"], ''History Today'', December 1985, '''35''' (12) pp. 7 - 14.</ref> The Catholic Church responded by promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form.<ref name="Durston"/> Following the Parliamentary victory over King Charles I during the English Civil War, England's [[Puritan]] rulers banned Christmas (1647).<ref name="Durston"/> Pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for several weeks [[Canterbury]] was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans.<ref name="Durston"/> The [[English Restoration|Restoration]] of 1660 ended the ban, but most Anglican clergymen still disapproved of Christmas celebration.<ref name="Durston"/>


In colonial America, the Puritans of New England disapproved of Christmas and outlawed it's celebration in Boston (1659-81). At the same time, Christian residents of [[Virginia]] and [[New York]] observed the holiday freely. Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after the [[American Revolution]], when it was considered an English custom.
In colonial America, the Puritans of New England disapproved of Christmas and outlawed its celebration in Boston (1659-81). At the same time, Christian residents of [[Virginia (U.S. state)|Virginia]] and [[New York (disambiguation)|New York]] observed the holiday freely. Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after the [[American Revolution]], when it was considered an English custom.


By the 1820s, sectarian tension in England had eased and British writers began to worry that Christmas was dying out. They imagined [[Tudor]] Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration, and efforts were made to revive the holiday. [[Charles Dickens]]' book ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' (1843) played a major role in reinventing Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion as opposed to communal celebration and hedonistic excess.<ref name="Rowell">Rowell, Geoffrey, [http://www.historytoday.com/dt_main_allatonce.asp?gid=9784&aid=&tgid=&amid=9784&g9784=x&g9777=x&g30026=x&g20991=x&g21010=x&g19965=x&g19963=x "Dickens and the Construction of Christmas"], ''History Today,'' [[1993|December 1993]], '''43''' (12), pp. 17 - 24.</ref>  
By the 1820s, sectarian tension had eased and British writers began to worry that Christmas was dying out. They imagined [[Tudor]] Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration, and efforts were made to revive the holiday. [[Charles Dickens]]' book ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' (1843) played a major role in reinventing Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion, as opposed to communal celebration and hedonistic excess.<ref name="Rowell">Rowell, Geoffrey, [http://www.historytoday.com/dt_main_allatonce.asp?gid=9784&aid=&tgid=&amid=9784&g9784=x&g9777=x&g30026=x&g20991=x&g21010=x&g19965=x&g19963=x "Dickens and the Construction of Christmas"], ''History Today,'' December 1993, '''43''' (12), pp. 17 - 24.</ref>  


Interest in Christmas in America was revived in the 1820s by several short stories by [[Washington Irving]] which appear in his ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' and "Old Christmas", and by [[Clement Clarke Moore]]'s 1822 poem ''[[A Visit From St. Nicholas]]'' (also known as ''Twas the Night Before Christmas'').  Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted holiday traditions he claimed to have observed in England. Although some argue that Irving invented the traditions he describes, they were widely imitated by his American readers. The numerous [[Germans|German]] immigrants and the homecomings following the [[American Civil War]] also helped promote the holiday. Christmas was declared a U.S. [[Federal holiday]] in 1870 .
Interest in Christmas in America was revived in the 1820s by several short stories by [[Washington Irving]] which appear in his ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' and "Old Christmas", and by [[Clement Clarke Moore]]'s 1822 poem ''[[A Visit From St. Nicholas]]'' (also known as ''Twas the Night Before Christmas'').  Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted holiday traditions he claimed to have observed in England. Although some argue that Irving invented the traditions he describes, they were widely imitated by his American readers. The numerous [[Germans|German]] immigrants and the homecomings following the [[American Civil War]] also helped promote the holiday. Christmas was declared a U.S. [[Federal holiday]] in 1870.


===The 20th century and after===
===The 20th century and after===
[[Image:Now is it Christmas again (1907) by Carl Larsson.jpg|thumbnail|380px|right|"Now it is Christmas again" (1907) by Carl Larsson.]]
In 1914, the first year of World War I, there was an [[Christmas Truce|unofficial truce]] between German and British armies in France. Soldiers on both sides spontaneously began to sing carols and stopped fighting. The truce began on Christmas Day and continued for some time afterwards.<ref>Baker, Chris, [http://www.1914-1918.net/truce.htm The Christmas Truce of 1914], 1996</ref> Many [[Christmas in the Trenches|stories]] about the truce include a soccer game between the trench lines.
In 1914, the first year of [[World War I]], there was an [[Christmas truce|unofficial truce]] between German and [[British Army|British troops]] in France. Soldiers on both sides spontaneously began to sing carols and stopped fighting. The truce began on Christmas Day and continued for some time afterwards.<ref>Baker, Chris, [http://www.1914-1918.net/truce.htm The Christmas Truce of 1914], 1996</ref> Many stories about the truce include a [[football (soccer)|football]] game between the trench lines.
 
Since a 1962 U.S Supreme Court regarding school prayer, Christmas has been the subject of controversy in the United States. Some considered the U.S. government's recognition of Christmas as a federal holiday to be a violation of the separation of church and state. This was brought to trial several times, recently including in ''Lynch v. Donnelly (1984)''<ref name="Lynch">[http://www.belcherfoundation.org/lynch_v_donnelly.htm ''Lynch vs. Donnelly''] (1984)</ref> and ''Ganulin v. United States (1999)''.<ref name="Ganulin"> [http://www.becketfund.org/index.php/case/25.html ''Ganulin v. United States''] (1999)</ref> According to ''Ganulin'', "the establishment of Christmas Day as a legal public holiday does not violate the Establishment Clause because it has a valid secular purpose."  This decision was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in 2000.  Many devout Christians objected to what they saw as the vulgarization and cooption of one of their sacred observances by secular commercial society and calls to return to "the true meaning of Christmas" were common.


Throughout the 20th century, the United States experienced controversy over the nature of Christmas, and its dual status as a religious feast day and a secular holiday of the same name.  Some considered the U.S. government's recognition of Christmas as a federal holiday to be a violation of the [[separation of church and state]]. This was brought to trial several times, recently including in ''Lynch v. Donnelly (1984)''<ref name="Lynch">[http://www.belcherfoundation.org/lynch_v_donnelly.htm ''Lynch vs. Donnelly''] (1984)</ref> and ''Ganulin v. United States (1999)''.<ref name="Ganulin"> [http://www.becketfund.org/index.php/case/25.html ''Ganulin v. United States''] (1999)</ref> On December 6, 1999, the verdict for ''Ganulin v. United States (1999)'' declared that "the establishment of Christmas Day as a legal public holiday does not violate the Establishment Clause because it has a valid secular purpose."  This decision was upheld by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] on December 19, 2000.  At the same time, many devout Christians objected to what they saw as the vulgarization and cooption of one of their sacred observances by secular commercial society and calls to return to "the true meaning of Christmas" were common.
Controversy over Christmas erupted again in 2005, when retailers, including Walmart, promoted the use of the phrase "happy holidays" as opposed to the traditional "merry Christmas." American political commentators such as Bill O'Reilly protested this as part of what they claimed was general trend to secularize society.<ref>Cohen, Adam. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/04/opinion/04sun3.html?ex=1291352400&en=a1c102d8260b92e3&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss "This season's war cry: Commercialize Christmas, or else."] ''The New York Times,'' December 5, 2005.</ref>


Debates about Christmas in America continued into the 21st century. In 2005, when commercial interests sought to ameliorate Christians concerned with protecting the sacredness of their holiday and non-Christians uncomfortable with the perceived connection to faith, some Christians, along with American political commentators such as [[Bill O'Reilly]], protested perceiving that it represented the [[Christmas controversies|secularization of Christmas]] rather than its protection.  They felt that the holiday was threatened by a general [[secularization|secular trend]], or by persons and organizations with an anti-Christian agenda. The perceived trend was also blamed on [[political correctness]].<ref>Cohen, Adam. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/04/opinion/04sun3.html?ex=1291352400&en=a1c102d8260b92e3&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss "This season's war cry: Commercialize Christmas, or else."] ''The New York Times,'' [[December 5, 2005]].</ref>
==Santa Claus==
{{Image|1863 harpers.jpg|right|250px|Santa Claus hands out gifts during the US Civil War in Thomas Nast's first Santa Claus cartoon, ''Harper's Weekly'', 1863.}}


==Santa Claus and other bringers of gifts==
The holiday is characterized by the exchange of gifts among friends and family members, some of which are attributed to "Santa Claus," also known as Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas or St. Nikolaus, or Kris Kringle. The name Santa Claus is derived from the Dutch ''Sinterklaas,'' a contraction of ''Sint Nicolaas'' (Saint Nicholas). Sinterklaas gave gifts to Dutch children on December 5 and was therefore a part of New York's heritage as a former Dutch colony. He became associated with Christmas as a result of Irving's ''History of New York,'' (1809). Moore's poem "A Visit from St. Nicholas" (1823) is responsible for establishing Santa Claus in the mind of the American public.
[[Image:1863 harpers.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Santa Claus hands out gifts during the US Civil War in [[Thomas Nast]]'s first Santa Claus cartoon, ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'', 1863.]]
{{main|Santa Claus}}
In [[Western culture]], where the holiday is characterized by the exchange of gifts among friends and family members, some of the gifts are attributed to a character called Santa Claus (also known as [[Father Christmas]], [[Saint Nicholas]] or St. Nikolaus, [[Sinterklaas]], Kris Kringle, [[Joulupukki]], [[Weihnachtsmann]], [[Basil of Caesarea|Saint Basil]] and [[Ded Moroz|Father Frost]]).


The popular image of Santa Claus was created by the [[German American|German-American]] cartoonist [[Thomas Nast]] (1840-1902), who drew a new image annually, beginning in 1863. By the 1880s, Nast's Santa had evolved into the form we now recognize. The image was standardized by advertisers in the 1920s.<ref name="Mikkelson">Mikkelson, Barbara and David P., [http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/santa.asp "The Claus That Refreshes"], ''Snopes.com,'' 2006.</ref>  
The image of Santa Claus was created by the German-American cartoonist Thomas Nast (1840-1902), who drew a new image annually, beginning in 1863. By the 1880s, Nast's Santa had evolved into the form we now recognize. The image was standardized by advertisers in the 1920s.<ref name="Mikkelson">Mikkelson, Barbara and David P., [http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/santa.asp "The Claus That Refreshes"], ''Snopes.com,'' 2006.</ref>  


Father Christmas, who predates the Santa Claus character, was first recorded in the [[15th century]], but was associated with holiday merrymaking and drunkenness.<ref name=Harper/> In Victorian Britain, his image was remade to match that of Santa. The [[French language|French]] [[Père Noël]] evolved along similar lines, eventually adopting the Santa image. In Italy, Babbo Natale acts as Santa Claus, while [[La Befana]], is the bringer of gifts and arrives on the eve of the [[Epiphany (Christian)|Epiphany]]. It is said that La Befana set out to bring the baby Jesus gifts, but got lost along the way. Now, she brings gifts to all children.
Father Christmas, who predates Santa Claus, was first recorded in the 15th century, but he was originally associated with holiday merrymaking and drunkenness.<ref name=Harper/> In Victorian Britain, his image was remade to match that of Santa. France's Père Noël has a similar history. In Italy, "Babbo Natale" acts as Santa Claus while "La Befana" brings gifts on the eve of the Epiphany.


==Christmas tree and other decorations==
==Christmas trees and other decorations==
[[Image:DSC04820.JPG|thumb|250px|left|Christmas display in a Brazilian shopping mall]]
The Christmas tree represents an adaptation of Germanic traditions regarding the use of evergreen boughs.<ref>Robinson, B.A. [http://www.religioustolerance.org/xmas_tree.htm "All about the Christmas tree: Pagan origins, Christian adaptation, & secular status"] ''ReligiousTolerance.Org,'' December 13, 2003.</ref> The English language phrase "Christmas tree" was first recorded in 1835<ref name=Harper>Harper, Douglas, [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Christ Christ], ''Online Etymology Dictionary,'' 2001.</ref> and represents an importation from German.{{Image|Image-Juletræet.jpg|left|250px|A family Christmas tree.}}
[[Image:De tot una mica 049.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Malaga]] ([[Spain]]) during Christmas]]
The modern Christmas tree tradition is believed to have begun in Germany in the 18th century<ref name="Shaman">van Renterghem, Tony. ''When Santa was a shaman.'' St. Paul: Llewellyn Publications, 1995. ISBN 1-56718-765-X</ref> From Germany the custom was introduced to England, first via Queen Charlotte, wife of King George III, and then more successfully by Prince Albert during the reign of [[Queen Victoria]]. Around the same time, German immigrants introduced the custom into the United States.<ref>Morris, Desmond. ''Christmas Watching.'' London: Mackays of Chatham, 1992. ISBN 0-224-03598-3</ref> Christmas trees may be decorated with lights and ornaments.


The Christmas tree is often explained as a Christianization of Germanic traditions regarding the use of evergreen boughs,<ref>Robinson, B.A. [http://www.religioustolerance.org/xmas_tree.htm "All about the Christmas tree: Pagan origins, Christian adaptation, & secular status"] ''ReligiousTolerance.Org,'' [[December 13, 2003]].</ref> and an adaptation of pagan [[tree worship]].<ref name=Shaman/> [The English language phrase "Christmas tree" is first recorded in 1835,<ref name=Harper>Harper, Douglas, [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Christ Christ], ''Online Etymology Dictionary,'' 2001.</ref> and represents an importation from the [[German language]]. The modern Christmas tree tradition is believed to have begun in Germany in the 18th century<ref name=Shaman>van Renterghem, Tony. ''When Santa was a shaman.'' St. Paul: [[Llewellyn Worldwide|Llewellyn Publications]], 1995. ISBN 1-56718-765-X</ref> From Germany the custom was introduced to England, first via [[Queen Charlotte]], wife of [[George III]], and then more successfully by Prince Albert during the reign of [[Queen Victoria]]. Around the same time, German immigrants introduced the custom into the United States.<ref>[[Desmond Morris|Morris, Desmond]]. ''Christmas Watching.'' London: Mackays of Chatham, 1992. ISBN 0-224-03598-3</ref> Christmas trees may be decorated with lights and ornaments.
Since the 19th century, the poinsettia has been associated with Christmas. Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along with garlands and evergreen foliage.
Since the 19th century, the poinsettia has been associated with Christmas. Other popular holiday plants include holly, mistletoe, red amaryllis, and Christmas cactus. Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along with garlands and evergreen foliage.


==Economics of Christmas==
==Economics of Christmas==
[[Image:gifts xmas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gifts under a Christmas tree.]]
Christmas is typically the largest annual economic stimulus for many nations. Sales increase dramatically in almost all retail areas and shops introduce new products as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies. In the U.S., the "Christmas shopping season" generally begins on [[Black Friday (shopping)|Black Friday]], the day after [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]], though many American stores begin selling Christmas items in October and early November.<ref>Varga, Melody. [http://retailindustry.about.com/od/abouttheretailindustry/g/black_friday.htm "Black Friday], ''About:Retail Industry''.</ref>
In most areas, Christmas Day is the least active day of the year for business and commerce; almost all retail, commercial and institutional businesses are closed, and almost all industries cease activity (more than any other day of the year). In [[England and Wales]], the [[Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004]] prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. Scotland is currently planning similar legislation. [[Film studio]]s release many high-budget movies in the holiday season, including Christmas films, [[fantasy]] movies or high-tone dramas with high [[production values]].
In most areas, Christmas Day is the least active day of the year for business and commerce; almost all retail, commercial and institutional businesses are closed, and almost all industries cease activity (more than any other day of the year). In [[England and Wales]], the [[Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004]] prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. Scotland is currently planning similar legislation. [[Film studio]]s release many high-budget movies in the holiday season, including Christmas films, [[fantasy]] movies or high-tone dramas with high [[production values]].


===Modern commercialization===
===Commercialization===
Since the late 1800s the economic importance of Christmas has led to concerns over what is seen as the increasing commercialization of Christmas. The 1823 poem [[The Night Before Christmas|A Visit from Saint Nicholas]] had popularized the tradition of exchanging gifts and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance.<ref>usinfo.state.gov [http://usinfo.state.gov/scv/Archive/2005/Dec/19-344398.html “Americans Celebrate Christmas in Diverse Ways” November 26, 2006]</ref> In her 1850 book "The First Christmas in New England", [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]] wrote a character who complained that the true meaning of Christmas was being lost in a shopping spree.<ref>First [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian Church]] of Watertown [http://www.watertownfirstpres.org/sermons/12-11-05.html “Oh . . . and one more thing” December 11, 2005]</ref>
Once the 1823 poem "A Visit from Saint Nicholas" had popularized the tradition of exchanging gifts, Christmas shopping gradually began to assume economic importance.<ref>usinfo.state.gov [http://usinfo.state.gov/scv/Archive/2005/Dec/19-344398.html “Americans Celebrate Christmas in Diverse Ways” November 26, 2006]</ref> In her 1850 book "The First Christmas in New England", Harriet Beecher Stowe has a character complain that the true meaning of Christmas was being lost in a shopping spree.<ref>First Presbyterian Church of Watertown [http://www.watertownfirstpres.org/sermons/12-11-05.html “Oh . . . and one more thing” December 11, 2005]</ref>


The importance of the economic impact of Christmas was reinforced in the 1930s when President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] proposed moving the [[Thanksgiving]] holiday date to extend the Christmas shopping season and boost the economy during the [[Great Depression]].<ref>usinfo.state.gov [http://usinfo.state.gov/scv/Archive/2005/Dec/19-344398.html “Americans Celebrate Christmas in Diverse Ways”November 26, 2006]</ref> Religious leaders protested this move, with a 1931 [[New York Times]] roundup of Christmas sermons showing the most common theme as the dangers of an increasingly commercial Christmas.<ref>New York Times [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/04/opinion/04sun3.html?ex=1291352400&en=a1c102d8260b92e3&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss “This Season's War Cry: Commercialize Christmas, or Else ”December 4, 2005]</ref>
The economic importance of Christmas was highlighted when President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] proposed moving up the [[Thanksgiving]] holiday date to extend the Christmas shopping season and boost the economy.<ref>usinfo.state.gov [http://usinfo.state.gov/scv/Archive/2005/Dec/19-344398.html “Americans Celebrate Christmas in Diverse Ways” November 26, 2006]</ref> In their 1931 Christmas sermons, American clergymen responded by denouncing efforts to commercialize the holiday.<ref>New York Times [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/04/opinion/04sun3.html?ex=1291352400&en=a1c102d8260b92e3&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss “This Season's War Cry: Commercialize Christmas, or Else ”December 4, 2005]</ref>


==References==
==References==
<references/>
{{reflist|2}}[[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]]
 
[[Category:Religion Workgroup]]

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"The Ghost Engine of Christmas Present", an illustration from Charles Dickens's novel A Christmas Carol (1843).

Christmas has two main meanings: one, Christmas Day, an annual national holiday held on December 25 in many countries, and two, Christmastide, also known as The Twelve Days of Christmas, a holy season that marks the birth of Jesus, the central figure of Christianity. Christmas traditions include the display of Nativity scenes, holly and Christmas trees, the exchange of gifts and cards, and the arrival of Father Christmas or Santa Claus, also called Saint Nicholas. In addition, religious observances include special church services, the singing of particular hymns and carols and Nativity plays. Christmas has inspired a wide range of music, literature and performance art.

In Western countries, Christmas has become the most economically significant holiday of the year. In the United States, the holiday of Thanksgiving marks the beginning of the Christmas season, although shopkeepers may begin Christmas marketing several weeks before this, and continue promotions through the "after-Christmas sales" of January.

The modern celebration of Christmas blends modern religious and ancient pagan elements. The origins of Christmas can be traced in part to pre-Christian winter festivals. Many cultures have their most important holiday in winter because there is less agricultural work to do at this time. Examples of winter festivals that may have influenced Christmas include the pagan festivals of Yule and Saturnalia.[1]

In most observances, the Christmas season begins on December 25 and ends on the Feast of the Epiphany, January 6th, although this date is merely traditional, as the actual date of the birth of Jesus is unknown.[2] Most Orthodox Churches celebrate Christmas on January 7, the date on the Gregorian calendar which corresponds to December 25 on the Julian Calendar.

Etymology

The word "Christmas" is a contraction of "Christ's Mass." It is derived from the Middle English Christemasse and Old English Cristes mæsse.[3] Dutch has a similar word, Kerstmis often shortened to Kerst. The words for the holiday in Spanish (navidad), Portuguese (natal), Polish (Boże Narodzenie), French (noël), and Italian (natale), refer explicitly to the Nativity. In contrast, the German name Weihnachten means simply "hallowed night." The Anglo-Saxons referred to Christmas as geol,[3] the name of a pre-Christian winter festival from which the current English word "Yule" is derived.

Christmas is sometimes shortened to Xmas, an abbreviation that has a long history.[4] In early Greek versions of the New Testament, the letter Χ (chi), is the first letter of Christ (Χριστός). Since the mid-sixteenth century Χ, or the similar Roman letter X, has been used as an abbreviation for Christ.[5]

Adorazione del Bambino (Adoration of the Child) (1439-43), a mural by Florentine painter Fra Angelico.

The Nativity

The Gospel of Matthew[6] and the Gospel of Luke[7] each contains a distinct version of the Nativity story. According to these accounts, Jesus was born to Mary, assisted by her husband Joseph, in the town of Bethlehem (literally the "House of bread", also called "David's City", a place of historical importance to the ancient Jews). Because Luke's version mentions that the infant Jesus was laid in a "manger", a hay-filled animal feeder, the birth is presumed to have taken place in a stable of sorts, with the Holy Family surrounded by farm animals. Shepherds from the fields surrounding Bethlehem were told of the birth by an angel, and were the first to see the child.[8] Christians believe that the birth of Jesus fulfilled prophecies made hundreds of years before his birth. Later, three "wise men from the East" (known in Christian tradition as The Magi, the Three Wise Men or The Three Kings) visited as well, [9] bringing expensive gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. These wise men are traditionally referred to as Caspar, Melchior, and Balthazar, although their names and number are not referred to in the Biblical narrative. They are said to have followed a star, known as the Star of Bethlehem to Jerusalem, and found Jesus, whom they believed to be "the King of the Jews". Matthew's narrative includes a political aside involving King Herod of Judea being troubled and jealous at the thought of the birth of another king.

Remembering or re-creating the Nativity is a central way that Christians celebrate Christmas. The Orthodox Church practices the Nativity Fast in anticipation of the birth of Jesus, while much of the Western Church observes Advent. In many Christian churches, congregants perform plays re-telling the events of the Nativity; in some churches it a tradition that these Nativity plays are performed by children. Some Christians also display a small re-creation of the Nativity, known as a Nativity Scene, in their homes, using figurines to portray the key characters of the event. Live Nativity Scenes are also performed, using actors and live animals to portray the event with more realism.[10]

In the U.S., Christmas decorations at public buildings once commonly included Nativity scenes. This practice led to many lawsuits which argued that the practice amounted to a government endorsement of a religion. In 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a city-owned Christmas display, even one with a Nativity scene, does not violate the First Amendment.[11]

History

Origin of the festival

The New Testament does not give a date for the birth for Jesus. The Romans considered December 25 to be the date of the winter solstice, which they called bruma. Jesus was associated with solar days because he was identified with the "sun of righteousness."[12] Sextus Julius Africanus popularized the idea that Jesus was born on December 25 in Chronographiai (AD 221), a now lost reference book for Christians.[13] This date is nine months after the traditional date of the incarnation (March 25), now celebrated as the Feast of the Annunciation.[14] On the Roman calendar, March 25 was the date of the vernal equinox and early Christians believed it was also the date that Jesus was crucified.[14] The Christian idea that Jesus was conceived on the same date that he died is consistent with a Jewish belief that a prophet lived an integral number of years.[14]

The identification of the birthdate of Jesus did not at first inspire feasting or celebration. In 245, the theologian Origen denounced the idea of celebrating Jesus' birthday "as if he were a king pharaoh." He contended that only sinners, not saints, celebrated their birthdays.

The earliest reference to the celebration of Christmas is in the Calendar of Filocalus, an illuminated manuscript compiled in Rome in 354.[3][15] In the east, meanwhile, Christians celebrated the birth of Jesus as part of Epiphany (January 6), although this festival focused on the baptism of Jesus.[16]

Christmas was promoted in the east as part of the revival of Catholicism following the death of the pro-Arian Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The feast was introduced to Constantinople in 379, to Antioch in about 380, and to Alexandria in about 430. Christmas was especially controversial in fourth Constantinople, being the "fortress of Arianism," as Edward Gibbon described it. The feast disappeared after Gregory of Nazianzus resigned as bishop in 381, although it was reintroduced by John Chrysostom in about 400.[3] Over the course of time it was adopted by all the Eastern churches except the Armenian.

Adoration of the Magi by Don Lorenzo Monaco (1422).

Middle Ages

In the early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in the west focused on the visit of the magi.[17] But the Medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin," now known as Advent.[17] In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent.[17]

The gradual increase in the prominence of Christmas Day may reflect the influence of Yule, a pre-Christian northern European festival which was rescheduled to correspond with Christmas. Charlemagne was crowned on Christmas Day in 800 and King William I of England was crowned on Christmas Day 1066.

Around the twelfth century, the hedonistic traditions of Saturnalia transferred again to the "twelve days of Christmas" (December 25 - January 5).[17] The evening of January 5 was called "twelfth night," a festival later celebrated by William Shakespeare in a play of that name.

Adoration by the shepherds, by Florentine painter Angelo Bronzino (1503 - 1572).

By the High Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas.[17] King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which twenty-eight oxen and three hundred sheep were eaten.[17] The "Yule boar" was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts.[17] Caroling was also popular.[17] This was originally a group of dancers who sang.[17] The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus.[17] Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, so perhaps the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule continued in this form.[17] "Misrule" — drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling — was also an important aspect of the festival.[17] Indeed, in some locations, a "Lord of Misrule" was appointed - a commoner or serf put in charge for the feast. This is possibly the origin of the paper crown present in modern day Christmas crackers. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day and there was special Christmas ale.[17]

The Reformation and the 1800s

Excerpt from Josiah King's The Examination and Tryal of Father Christmas (1686), published shortly after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England.

During the Reformation, Protestants condemned Christmas celebration as "trappings of popery" and the "rags of the Beast".[18] The Catholic Church responded by promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form.[18] Following the Parliamentary victory over King Charles I during the English Civil War, England's Puritan rulers banned Christmas (1647).[18] Pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for several weeks Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans.[18] The Restoration of 1660 ended the ban, but most Anglican clergymen still disapproved of Christmas celebration.[18]

In colonial America, the Puritans of New England disapproved of Christmas and outlawed its celebration in Boston (1659-81). At the same time, Christian residents of Virginia and New York observed the holiday freely. Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after the American Revolution, when it was considered an English custom.

By the 1820s, sectarian tension had eased and British writers began to worry that Christmas was dying out. They imagined Tudor Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration, and efforts were made to revive the holiday. Charles Dickens' book A Christmas Carol (1843) played a major role in reinventing Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion, as opposed to communal celebration and hedonistic excess.[19]

Interest in Christmas in America was revived in the 1820s by several short stories by Washington Irving which appear in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon and "Old Christmas", and by Clement Clarke Moore's 1822 poem A Visit From St. Nicholas (also known as Twas the Night Before Christmas). Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted holiday traditions he claimed to have observed in England. Although some argue that Irving invented the traditions he describes, they were widely imitated by his American readers. The numerous German immigrants and the homecomings following the American Civil War also helped promote the holiday. Christmas was declared a U.S. Federal holiday in 1870.

The 20th century and after

In 1914, the first year of World War I, there was an unofficial truce between German and British armies in France. Soldiers on both sides spontaneously began to sing carols and stopped fighting. The truce began on Christmas Day and continued for some time afterwards.[20] Many stories about the truce include a soccer game between the trench lines.

Since a 1962 U.S Supreme Court regarding school prayer, Christmas has been the subject of controversy in the United States. Some considered the U.S. government's recognition of Christmas as a federal holiday to be a violation of the separation of church and state. This was brought to trial several times, recently including in Lynch v. Donnelly (1984)[11] and Ganulin v. United States (1999).[21] According to Ganulin, "the establishment of Christmas Day as a legal public holiday does not violate the Establishment Clause because it has a valid secular purpose." This decision was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in 2000. Many devout Christians objected to what they saw as the vulgarization and cooption of one of their sacred observances by secular commercial society and calls to return to "the true meaning of Christmas" were common.

Controversy over Christmas erupted again in 2005, when retailers, including Walmart, promoted the use of the phrase "happy holidays" as opposed to the traditional "merry Christmas." American political commentators such as Bill O'Reilly protested this as part of what they claimed was general trend to secularize society.[22]

Santa Claus

Santa Claus hands out gifts during the US Civil War in Thomas Nast's first Santa Claus cartoon, Harper's Weekly, 1863.

The holiday is characterized by the exchange of gifts among friends and family members, some of which are attributed to "Santa Claus," also known as Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas or St. Nikolaus, or Kris Kringle. The name Santa Claus is derived from the Dutch Sinterklaas, a contraction of Sint Nicolaas (Saint Nicholas). Sinterklaas gave gifts to Dutch children on December 5 and was therefore a part of New York's heritage as a former Dutch colony. He became associated with Christmas as a result of Irving's History of New York, (1809). Moore's poem "A Visit from St. Nicholas" (1823) is responsible for establishing Santa Claus in the mind of the American public.

The image of Santa Claus was created by the German-American cartoonist Thomas Nast (1840-1902), who drew a new image annually, beginning in 1863. By the 1880s, Nast's Santa had evolved into the form we now recognize. The image was standardized by advertisers in the 1920s.[23]

Father Christmas, who predates Santa Claus, was first recorded in the 15th century, but he was originally associated with holiday merrymaking and drunkenness.[24] In Victorian Britain, his image was remade to match that of Santa. France's Père Noël has a similar history. In Italy, "Babbo Natale" acts as Santa Claus while "La Befana" brings gifts on the eve of the Epiphany.

Christmas trees and other decorations

The Christmas tree represents an adaptation of Germanic traditions regarding the use of evergreen boughs.[25] The English language phrase "Christmas tree" was first recorded in 1835[24] and represents an importation from German.

(CC) Photo: Malene Thyssen
A family Christmas tree.

The modern Christmas tree tradition is believed to have begun in Germany in the 18th century[26] From Germany the custom was introduced to England, first via Queen Charlotte, wife of King George III, and then more successfully by Prince Albert during the reign of Queen Victoria. Around the same time, German immigrants introduced the custom into the United States.[27] Christmas trees may be decorated with lights and ornaments.

Since the 19th century, the poinsettia has been associated with Christmas. Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along with garlands and evergreen foliage.

Economics of Christmas

In most areas, Christmas Day is the least active day of the year for business and commerce; almost all retail, commercial and institutional businesses are closed, and almost all industries cease activity (more than any other day of the year). In England and Wales, the Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004 prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. Scotland is currently planning similar legislation. Film studios release many high-budget movies in the holiday season, including Christmas films, fantasy movies or high-tone dramas with high production values.

Commercialization

Once the 1823 poem "A Visit from Saint Nicholas" had popularized the tradition of exchanging gifts, Christmas shopping gradually began to assume economic importance.[28] In her 1850 book "The First Christmas in New England", Harriet Beecher Stowe has a character complain that the true meaning of Christmas was being lost in a shopping spree.[29]

The economic importance of Christmas was highlighted when President Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed moving up the Thanksgiving holiday date to extend the Christmas shopping season and boost the economy.[30] In their 1931 Christmas sermons, American clergymen responded by denouncing efforts to commercialize the holiday.[31]

References

  1. ↑ Flanders, J (2017). Christmas: A Biography. London: Picador.
  2. ↑ The Oxford Dictionary of Christian Church, Oxford University Press, London (1977), p. 280.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 "Christmas", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1913.
  4. ↑ Bratcher, Dennis. "The Christmas Season" The Voice, CRI/Voice, Institute, 2006.
  5. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary
  6. ↑ Matthew 2:18-25 Matthew 1:18-2:12
  7. ↑ Luke 1:26-38; 2:1-7 Luke 1:26-56
  8. ↑ Luke 2:8-20 Luke 2:1-6
  9. ↑ Matthew 2: 1-12
  10. ↑ Krug, Nora. "Little Towns of Bethlehem", The New York Times, November 25, 2005.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Lynch vs. Donnelly (1984)
  12. ↑ Malachi 4:2.
  13. ↑ "Christmas, Encyclopædia Britannica Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 "The Feast of the Annunciation", Catholic Encyclopedia, 1998.
  15. ↑ This document was prepared privately for a Roman aristocrat and is named after an artist who illuminated part of it. The reference to Christmas states, VIII kal. ian. natus Christus in Betleem Iudeæ. It is in a section based on an earlier manuscript produced in 336.
  16. ↑ Pokhilko, Hieromonk Nicholas, "The Formation of Epiphany according to Different Traditions
  17. ↑ 17.00 17.01 17.02 17.03 17.04 17.05 17.06 17.07 17.08 17.09 17.10 17.11 17.12 Murray, Alexander, "Medieval Christmas", History Today, December 1986, 36 (12), pp. 31 - 39.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Durston, Chris, "Lords of Misrule: The Puritan War on Christmas 1642-60", History Today, December 1985, 35 (12) pp. 7 - 14.
  19. ↑ Rowell, Geoffrey, "Dickens and the Construction of Christmas", History Today, December 1993, 43 (12), pp. 17 - 24.
  20. ↑ Baker, Chris, The Christmas Truce of 1914, 1996
  21. ↑ Ganulin v. United States (1999)
  22. ↑ Cohen, Adam. "This season's war cry: Commercialize Christmas, or else." The New York Times, December 5, 2005.
  23. ↑ Mikkelson, Barbara and David P., "The Claus That Refreshes", Snopes.com, 2006.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Harper, Douglas, Christ, Online Etymology Dictionary, 2001.
  25. ↑ Robinson, B.A. "All about the Christmas tree: Pagan origins, Christian adaptation, & secular status" ReligiousTolerance.Org, December 13, 2003.
  26. ↑ van Renterghem, Tony. When Santa was a shaman. St. Paul: Llewellyn Publications, 1995. ISBN 1-56718-765-X
  27. ↑ Morris, Desmond. Christmas Watching. London: Mackays of Chatham, 1992. ISBN 0-224-03598-3
  28. ↑ usinfo.state.gov “Americans Celebrate Christmas in Diverse Ways” November 26, 2006
  29. ↑ First Presbyterian Church of Watertown “Oh . . . and one more thing” December 11, 2005
  30. ↑ usinfo.state.gov “Americans Celebrate Christmas in Diverse Ways” November 26, 2006
  31. ↑ New York Times “This Season's War Cry: Commercialize Christmas, or Else ”December 4, 2005
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