Crusades

The Crusades were a series of religious wars in the Middle Ages aimed at reclaiming historic Christian lands that had been taken over by Moselms. Originally called to repel the Islamic forces dwelling in Jerusalem. The Crusades later evolved into a form of political decree called by the Papacy for political, social or economic reasons; In other words, a directive of war issued by the Pope to all Rome-friendly nations against forces who were hostile to the Papacy. Other, smaller Crusades lasted well into the 16th century, but they died out as a result of the Renaissance and the Reformation which changed the political and social face of Europe.

Background

The Byzantines controlled Jerusalem until its fall in 614 to Kosrau II, ruler of the Persian Empire. The Byzantine Emperor Heraclius aimed to reconquer Jerusalem using religious overtones; citing Jerusalem as the centre of Christianity and the home of the True Cross as a noble reason to regain control of the province. This set a precedent in Christian reasoning that Jerusalem and in turn Palestine rightfully belonged to Christianity, being the center of Christian tradition and religion.

The Arabs gained control of Palestine in the seventh century. Their successful invasion and occupation of the land had not interfered with Christians rights to pilgrimage or neither did it tamper with local Christian communities or monastries. It did however mark the beginning of Byzantine decline in the region. Palestine was traditionally an important link-up region to other, more important and wealthier nations; Egypt to the South, the Babylonians, Persians and Arabs to the east, and Macedonia and Rome to the North and West. The loss of Byzantine control in this region meant a ripple effect which caused the loss of Christian control over much of western Arabia and the emergence of the Muslims as a powerful entity at the expense of Orthodox Christianity.

In 1009 the Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the destruction of the the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, although the Byzantines were allowed to rebuild it in 1039. Although pilgramages were largely unhindred, some Christian clergy had been killed and certain pilgrims had been heckled or murdered. It soon became clear however of the economic importance of Jerusalem as a holy site and therefore the persecution of pilgrims ceased.

The recently emergent Seljuks had won a great victory over the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, 1071. This victory paved the way for Seljuk domination of Anatolia, making the pilgrims journey to Jerusalem all the more difficult. This concern for the pilgrims, as well as a heartfelt plea from Byzantine Emperor Manuel Comnenus for aid led to Pope Urban II to call for a holy war against the Muslims in the name of Christianity at the Council of Clermont, 1095. Although not originally intended to establish what would later be known as the Crusader States in the Levant, the movement gained wide support from aristocrat and peasant alike and thousands of Europeans prepared for the long hard march to fight the Seljuks and the other Muslim forces.

Bibliography

• Andrea, Alfred J. Encyclopedia of the Crusades. Greenwood Press, 2003.
• Asbridge, Thomas. The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict between Christianity and Islam (2005) excerpt and text search
• France, John. Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, 1000-1300 1999 online edition
• Harris, Jonathan. Byzantium and the Crusades. 2003. Pp. 276pp
• Hillenbrand, Carole. The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives. New York, 2000.
• Holt, P.M. The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517. 1986.
• Housley, Norman. The Later Crusades, 1274-1580: From Lyons to Alcazar 1992 online edition
• Maalouf, Amin. Crusades Through Arab Eyes (1989) excerpt and text search
• Madden, Thomas F. The New Concise History of the Crusades. 2005.
• Mayer, Hans E. The Crusades. 1965.
• Peters, Edward. Christian Society and the Crusades, 1198-1229 1971 online edition
• Riley-Smith, Jonathan.The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading. 1986.
• Riley-Smith, Jonathan.The Crusades: A History (2005) excerpt and text search
• Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford History of the Crusades. 1995. online edition; excerpt and text search
• Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades, Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundations of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. ; Volume II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East 1100-1187. and Volume III: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades (1951)
• Setton, Kenneth ed., A History of the Crusades. Madison, 1969-1989 (e-book online)
• Tyerman, Christopher. God's War: A New History of the Crusades (2006)

External links

• Angeliki E. Laiou, The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World, (e-book online), includes chapter on Historiography of the crusades.
• E.L. Skip Knox, The Crusades, a virtual college course through Boise State University.