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| == '''[[Digital rights management]]''' ==
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| | <small> |
| | | ==Footnotes== |
| '''Digital rights management (DRM)''' refers to the laws and technologies which provide intellectual property owners control over the distribution and use of their material by controlling consumers' use of it. The claimed goals are to prevent copying of digital media and to restrict access and content use to what is allowed by [[copyright]] law.<ref name=Bates>Bates, BJ. (2008) 'Commentary: Value and Digital Rights Management-A Social Economics Approach', Journal of Media Economics, 21:1, 53-77</ref>
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| Critics refer to it as "Digital ''Restrictions'' Management", and argue that many of the restrictions it enforces go well beyond the rights granted by law.
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| ===History===
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| Copyright law is the earliest form of [[intellectual property]] protection. This area of law developed for print media, long before copying machines and digital media, and has not necessarily kept pace with technology.
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| ==== Legal Background ====
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| The [[Copyright|copyright]] since its formal creation in 1710 by the British [[Statute of Anne]] and its inclusion in the [[U.S. Constitution]]<ref name=Bennett>Bennett, S. (1999) 'Authors' Rights', Journal of Electronic Publishing, vol. 5, no. 2, Dec., 1999</ref> has been the main protection scheme for intellectual property rights for creative information goods and services.
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| Article I, Section 8, Clause 8 of the [[U.S. Constitution]]:
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| ''"To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries."''
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| [[Copyright]] law grants exclusive legal ownership of information under specific conditions and terms. Through two major revisions of U.S. copyright law in 1909 and 1976,<ref name=CopyAct1976>{{citation
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| | title = Copyright Act (17 U.S.C.) Index
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| | url = http://www.bitlaw.com/source/17usc/
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| | first = Daniel A. | last = Tysver }}</ref>
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| the range of content and media forms covered by legislation were expanded.
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| During the pre-digital era, large-scale copying was expensive and usually resulted in degraded content. The development of electronic and digital media transformed the production and distribution of information goods and services. In digital form, the content could be copied perfectly or easily converted to another form or format, and thus lifted the physical constraints of copying. The rise of digital media and networks made sharing and copying not only easier for traditional information "pirates", but also made it easier for individuals. Unlike the "pirates" whose unauthorized copies were for commercial gain, individual copying stems from behavioral norms from traditions of [[fair use]] and first-sale rights.
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| ''[[Digital rights management|.... (read more)]]''
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| {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width: 90%; float: center; margin: 0.5em 1em 0.8em 0px;"
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| ! style="text-align: center;" | [[Digital rights management#References|notes]]
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| {{reflist|2}} | | {{reflist|2}} |
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| | </small> |
Latest revision as of 10:19, 11 September 2020
Napoleon (Napoleon Bonaparte or, after 1804, Napoleon I, Emperor of the French) was a world historic figure and dictator of France from 1799 to 1814. He was the greatest general of his age--perhaps any age, with a sure command of battlefield tactics and campaign strategies, As a civil leader he played a major role in the French Revolution, then ended it when he became dictator in 1799 and Emperor of France in 1804 He modernized the French military, fiscal, political legal and religious systems. He fought an unending series of wars against Britain with a complex, ever-changing coalition of European nations on both sides. Refusing to compromise after his immense defeat in Russia in 1812, he was overwhelmed by a coalition of enemies and abdicated in 1814. In 1815 he returned from exile, took control of France, built a new army, and in 100 days almost succeeded--but was defeated at Waterloo and exiled to a remote island. His image and memory are central to French national identity, but he is despised by the British and Russians and is a controversial figure in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.
Rise to Power
Once the Revolution had begun, so many of the aristocratic officers turned against the Revolutionary government, or were exiled or executed, that a vacuum of senior leadership resulted. Promotions came very quickly now, and loyalty to the Revolution was as important as technical skill; Napoleon had both. His demerits were overlooked as he was twice reinstated, promoted, and allowed to collect his back pay. Paris knew him as an intellectual soldier deeply involved in politics. His first test of military genius came at Toulon in 1793, where the British had seized this key port. Napoleon, an acting Lieutenant-Colonel, used his artillery to force the British to abandon the city. He was immediately promoted by the Jacobin radicals under Robespierre to brigadier-general, joining the ranks of several brilliant young generals. He played a major role in defending Paris itself from counter-revolutionaries, and became the operational planner for the Army of Italy and planned two successful attacks in April 1794. He married Josephine (Rose de Beauharnais) in 1796, after falling violently in love with the older aristocratic widow.[1]
- ↑ Englund pp 63-73, 91-2, 97-8
