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== '''[[Politics]]''' ==
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==Footnotes==
'''Politics''' is about living together in communities. Its subject-matter includes the consideration of such  philosophical issues  as the extent to which individual conduct should be made subordinate to the will of the community,  and that of the proper rôle of the [[state]] as an expression of the will of the community. It also includes the consideration of such practical issues as the formulation and enforcement of rules governing the relations between the individual and the [[state]]. It encompasses the  sociological influences upon the resolution of those issues in various communities, including the collective beliefs (or[[ideology| ideologies]]) that are held by  their members. At the operational level, it includes prescriptive issues  such as the conditions governing the legitimacy of [[government]]; the extent to which collective decision-making should be determined by [[ethics|ethical]] considerations rather than by its intended consequences; and the consideration that should be given to the welfare of foreign nationals. The descriptive content of politics includes the taxonomy of political systems, of  institutional arrangements for the conduct of [[government]], and of the institutions governing the conduct of [[international relations]]. It also includes  accounts of the observed conduct of politicians in seeking to gain the approval of the community, and in their policy-making  and executive activities when in office.
 
===Etymology===
The word politics comes from the Greek word Πολιτικά (politika), which was itself derived from πόλις (polis), "city". It was first used  to mean the art of living in a city, but it subsequently acquired the broader interpretation of the art of being a citizen. That broader interpretation was implicit in the use of the word "cosmopolitan" to denote a citizen of the cosmos by the [[Cynics]] of the 4th century BCE. Later derivations included the terms "politic", "policy" and "police", and "polity" (a word used by some academics to refer to particular forms of governmental organisation). The term politics itself has also been used colloquially to describe  (slightly discreditable) social conduct, as in "office politics" and, when extended to form a verb, in "politicking".
 
''[[Politics|.... (read more)]]''
 
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Latest revision as of 10:19, 11 September 2020

Napoleon (Napoleon Bonaparte or, after 1804, Napoleon I, Emperor of the French) was a world historic figure and dictator of France from 1799 to 1814. He was the greatest general of his age--perhaps any age, with a sure command of battlefield tactics and campaign strategies, As a civil leader he played a major role in the French Revolution, then ended it when he became dictator in 1799 and Emperor of France in 1804 He modernized the French military, fiscal, political legal and religious systems. He fought an unending series of wars against Britain with a complex, ever-changing coalition of European nations on both sides. Refusing to compromise after his immense defeat in Russia in 1812, he was overwhelmed by a coalition of enemies and abdicated in 1814. In 1815 he returned from exile, took control of France, built a new army, and in 100 days almost succeeded--but was defeated at Waterloo and exiled to a remote island. His image and memory are central to French national identity, but he is despised by the British and Russians and is a controversial figure in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.

The Trail of Napoleon - J.F. Horrabin - Map.jpg

Rise to Power

Once the Revolution had begun, so many of the aristocratic officers turned against the Revolutionary government, or were exiled or executed, that a vacuum of senior leadership resulted. Promotions came very quickly now, and loyalty to the Revolution was as important as technical skill; Napoleon had both. His demerits were overlooked as he was twice reinstated, promoted, and allowed to collect his back pay. Paris knew him as an intellectual soldier deeply involved in politics. His first test of military genius came at Toulon in 1793, where the British had seized this key port. Napoleon, an acting Lieutenant-Colonel, used his artillery to force the British to abandon the city. He was immediately promoted by the Jacobin radicals under Robespierre to brigadier-general, joining the ranks of several brilliant young generals. He played a major role in defending Paris itself from counter-revolutionaries, and became the operational planner for the Army of Italy and planned two successful attacks in April 1794. He married Josephine (Rose de Beauharnais) in 1796, after falling violently in love with the older aristocratic widow.[1]

Footnotes
  1. ↑ Englund pp 63-73, 91-2, 97-8

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