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| '''[[Gut-brain signalling]]''' describes the interaction between the gastrointestinal tract and the brain, and how secretion of varying hormones from different areas of the body causes appetite-enhancing and satiety signals to be sent to the brain. The hormones that have been most intensely studied are: ghrelin, obestatin, cholecystokinin (CCK), GLP-1, peptide YY (PYY) and insulin which all play major roles in appetite regulation. The vagus nerve is also a key mediator of regulation, and all of these inputs are processed by areas in the brain such as the hypothalamus and the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS).
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| ===Anorexic Signals=== | | ==Footnotes== |
| {{Image|diagram 3.jpg|center|350px|''Gut-Brain signaling Pathways'' Proteins and hormones activate brain pathways in different ways, either by eventual vagal activation or through peripheral circulation. The nucleus tractus solitarii and the arcuate nucleus are then activated. }} | | {{reflist|2}} |
| '''Cholecystokinin''' (CCK) is a peptide hormone synthesised by L-cells in the mucosal epithelium of the duodenum, and secreted in response to the presence of partly digested lipids and protein]]s. CCK inhibits gastric emptying and stimulates the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the gall bladder by acting at CCK-A receptors (mainly found in the periphery but also found in some areas of the CNS). Because gastric emptying is inhibited, the partly digested lipids and proteins are exposed to the digestive enzymes and bile so are further broken down. As the lipids and proteins are broken down, CCK secretion declines.
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| CCK acts as a ‘gatekeeper’ for the response of other gut-brain signalling hormones on the afferent vagal neurons. At low levels (after fasting), CCK stimulates the expression of receptors associated with the stimulation of food intake, including receptors for melanin concentrating hormone (MCH)-1 and cannabinoid CB1 receptors. At high levels (after food consumption), MCH-1 and CB1 receptors are down- regulated. Therefore CCK, at a high or low concentration, can affect how afferent vagal neurons respond to other neurohormones.
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| In rats, CCK inhibits food intake in younger individuals more effectively than in older individuals. It also has a greater effect in males than in females.
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| '''Glucagon-like peptide-1''' (GLP-1) is a hormone secreted from L-cells in the mucosal epithelium of the duodenum and small intestine. It is derived from the ''pro-glucagon'' gene, and is secreted into the circulation in response to the presence of nutrients. It acts at the pancreas, where it stimulates insulin secretion and suppresses glucagon secretion. It also increases insulin sensitivity. GLP-1 also activates anorexigenic neurons in the arcuate nucleus via the caudal brainstem. Activation of these neurons induces satiety and decreases food intake/hunger. It also decreases gastric emptying, so adds to the feeling of being ‘full’. At higher concentrations, GLP-1 causes nausea, and can induce conditioned taste aversion, where the brain associates the taste of a certain food with being toxic (usually after an individual consumes a food that had made them sick).
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Latest revision as of 10:19, 11 September 2020
Napoleon (Napoleon Bonaparte or, after 1804, Napoleon I, Emperor of the French) was a world historic figure and dictator of France from 1799 to 1814. He was the greatest general of his age--perhaps any age, with a sure command of battlefield tactics and campaign strategies, As a civil leader he played a major role in the French Revolution, then ended it when he became dictator in 1799 and Emperor of France in 1804 He modernized the French military, fiscal, political legal and religious systems. He fought an unending series of wars against Britain with a complex, ever-changing coalition of European nations on both sides. Refusing to compromise after his immense defeat in Russia in 1812, he was overwhelmed by a coalition of enemies and abdicated in 1814. In 1815 he returned from exile, took control of France, built a new army, and in 100 days almost succeeded--but was defeated at Waterloo and exiled to a remote island. His image and memory are central to French national identity, but he is despised by the British and Russians and is a controversial figure in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.
Rise to Power
Once the Revolution had begun, so many of the aristocratic officers turned against the Revolutionary government, or were exiled or executed, that a vacuum of senior leadership resulted. Promotions came very quickly now, and loyalty to the Revolution was as important as technical skill; Napoleon had both. His demerits were overlooked as he was twice reinstated, promoted, and allowed to collect his back pay. Paris knew him as an intellectual soldier deeply involved in politics. His first test of military genius came at Toulon in 1793, where the British had seized this key port. Napoleon, an acting Lieutenant-Colonel, used his artillery to force the British to abandon the city. He was immediately promoted by the Jacobin radicals under Robespierre to brigadier-general, joining the ranks of several brilliant young generals. He played a major role in defending Paris itself from counter-revolutionaries, and became the operational planner for the Army of Italy and planned two successful attacks in April 1794. He married Josephine (Rose de Beauharnais) in 1796, after falling violently in love with the older aristocratic widow.[1]
- ↑ Englund pp 63-73, 91-2, 97-8
