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| == '''[[Diabesity]]''' ==
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| ''by [[User:Gareth Leng|Gareth Leng]], [[User:Hannah Frost|Hannah Frost]], [[User:Luke Kennedy Burke|Luke Kennedy Burke]], [[User:Charlie Player|Charlie Player]] and [[User:Katie Rowland|Katie Rowland]]
| | <small> |
| | | ==Footnotes== |
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| The term '''diabesity''' was coined by [https://vpn.ucsf.edu/oby/journal/v19/n3/full/,DanaInfo=www.nature.com+oby2010334a.html Ethan Sims] in 1973, to describe the close relationship between [[diabetes mellitus type 2]] (T2DM) and [[obesity]]. Their findings suggested that by overfeeding young men, with no previous family history of diabetes, the initial signs of diabetes were induced. This excess consuption led to increases in [[insulin]] production, plasma [[glucose]], [[triglycerides]] and eventually impaired glucose tolerance; all signs predisposing one to T2DM and obesity<ref>
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| Sims EAH ''et al.'' (1973) Endocrine and metabolic effects of experimental obesity in man, ''Recent Prog Horm Res'' 29:457–96</ref><ref>Haslam DW, James WP (2005) Obesity''Lancet'' 366:1197–209</ref>
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| T2DM is a disorder where cells fail to take up glucose from the blood. Glucose is the fuel for respiration which produces energy for our cells to function properly. Diabetes mellitus is the foremost cause of kidney failure ([[diabetic nephropathy]]), blindness ([[diabetic retinopathy]]), and amputation in adults ([[diabetic neuropathy]]). People with this disease lack the ability to utilize the hormone [[insulin]]. Insulin is produced by the [[pancreas]] after a meal inresponse to increased concentrations of glucose in the blood. The insulin signal attaches to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, causing them to switch on their glucose-transporting machinery. People with T2DM have normal or even elevated levels of insulin in their blood, and normal insulin receptors, but the binding of insulin to its receptors does not turn on the glucose-transporting machinery.
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| Proteins called [[IRS proteins]] (insulin receptor substrate) bind with the insulin receptor inside the cell. The receptor responds by adding a phosphate group onto the IRS molecules. This rouses the IRS molecules into action, and they activate a variety of processes, including an enzyme that turns on the glucose transporter machinery. When the IRS genes are deliberately inactivated in [[transgenic]] “knockout” mice, T2DM results. However, there are no IRS gene mutations in inherited T2DM; the IRS genes are normal. This suggests that in T2DM something is impeding with the action of the IRS proteins. An estimated 80% of those who develop T2DM are obese.
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| ===Visceral fat accumulation and type 2 diabetes===
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| Excess visceral adipose tissue increases the risk for T2DM. Excess fat within the [[abdomen]], known as [[visceral adiposity]], creates a serious health risk of metabolic complications independent from accumulation of adipose tissue in other regions: visceral adiposity is related with an increase in ''[[insulin resistance]]'', whereas abdominal subcutaneous fat is not. (''Insulin resistance'' describes the impaired ability of insulin to suppress hepatic glucose output and promote glucose disposal in the periphery.) As T2DM gets worse, patients have higher blood sugar levels ([[hyperglycaemia]]) because the [[pancreatic beta cells]] are unable to make enough insulin. In insulin resistance, normal amounts of insulin are unable to produce a normal response from adipose, muscle and liver cells. Cnop ''et al.'' showed that visceral fat is the best predictor of insulin sensitivity whilst subcutaneous fat establishes leptin levels <ref>Cnop''et al.'' (2002) The concurrent accumalation of intra-adominal and subcutaneous fat explains the association between insulin resistance and plasma leptin concentrations. ''Diabetes'' 51:1005-15</ref>
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| In 1994, a new hormone was found, called [[leptin]], that provides feedback to the brain of the level of fat in the body. Leptin suppresses appetite, but most obese people have very high leptin levels, as leptin is secreted by adipose cells. Therefore, obesity is not generally caused by a deficiency in leptin; instead there seems to be a defect in leptin signalling. Adipocytes also produce an array of other peptides including [[adiponectin]], [[resistin]] and [[TNF alpha]]. They act on peripheral tissues and thereby affect insulin sensitivity and the processes involved in substrate metabolism.
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| ''[[Diabesity|.... (read more)]]''
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| ! style="text-align: center;" | [[Diabesity#References|notes]]
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| {{reflist|2}} | | {{reflist|2}} |
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Latest revision as of 10:19, 11 September 2020
1901 photograph of a stentor (announcer) at the Budapest
Telefon Hirmondó.
Telephone newspaper is a general term for the telephone-based news and entertainment services which were introduced beginning in the 1890s, and primarily located in large European cities. These systems were the first example of electronic broadcasting, and offered a wide variety of programming, however, only a relative few were ever established. Although these systems predated the invention of radio, they were supplanted by radio broadcasting stations beginning in the 1920s, primarily because radio signals were able to cover much wider areas with higher quality audio.
History
After the electric telephone was introduced in the mid-1870s, it was mainly used for personal communication. But the idea of distributing entertainment and news appeared soon thereafter, and many early demonstrations included the transmission of musical concerts. In one particularly advanced example, Clément Ader, at the 1881 Paris Electrical Exhibition, prepared a listening room where participants could hear, in stereo, performances from the Paris Grand Opera. Also, in 1888, Edward Bellamy's influential novel Looking Backward: 2000-1887 foresaw the establishment of entertainment transmitted by telephone lines to individual homes.
The scattered demonstrations were eventually followed by the establishment of more organized services, which were generally called Telephone Newspapers, although all of these systems also included entertainment programming. However, the technical capabilities of the time meant that there were limited means for amplifying and transmitting telephone signals over long distances, so listeners had to wear headphones to receive the programs, and service areas were generally limited to a single city. While some of the systems, including the Telefon Hirmondó, built their own one-way transmission lines, others, including the Electrophone, used standard commercial telephone lines, which allowed subscribers to talk to operators in order to select programming. The Telephone Newspapers drew upon a mixture of outside sources for their programs, including local live theaters and church services, whose programs were picked up by special telephone lines, and then retransmitted to the subscribers. Other programs were transmitted directly from the system's own studios. In later years, retransmitted radio programs were added.
During this era telephones were expensive luxury items, so the subscribers tended to be the wealthy elite of society. Financing was normally done by charging fees, including monthly subscriptions for home users, and, in locations such as hotel lobbies, through the use of coin-operated receivers, which provided short periods of listening for a set payment. Some systems also accepted paid advertising.
