Calcidius: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 16:00, 23 July 2024

Debates about his origin

There have been many conjectures about who Calcidius was and where he came from, but there are few known facts. Tradition has it that Calcidius served as archideacon under Osius (also known as Hosius; supposedly the same Bishop of Cordova that along with the Roman priests Vito and Vicente represented the Pope in the first famous "ecumenical council" at Nicaea). There have been suggestions that he was of Jewish origin, or served as a deacon in the church of Carthage, but no firm evidence on these points has surfaced. The only documents about his personality and private life are a few private letters dubiously attributed to him.

There is, however, in his annotated translation of the first part of Plato's Timaeus, his personal dedication to Osius. This introductory letter is thus one of the most important elements used to identify the time and location of Calcidius' life. The letter suggests that Osius gave Calcidius the task of not only translating the Timaeus from Ancient Greek to Latin, but also of annotating the text, and, according to Calcidius, this was something that had never been tried before (operis intemptati ad hoc tempus). In some manuscripts, there are inscriptions which shed light on this: "Osius episcopo Calcidius archidiaconus". This suggests that Osius is a Bishop, and Calcidius his archideacon. In this epoch there was indeed an Osius, Bishop of Cordova (approximately 257-357 CE) who was an important figure in western Christianity. Osius played an important role in the defense of the orthodoxy in the Councils of Nicea (325 CE) and Sardica (344 CE), and was dedicated to fighting Arianism. If it is this Osius whom Calcidius addresses in his dedication, then Calcidius wrote his annotated translation in around 325-350 CE.

However, Waszink, the most recent editor of Calcidius, disagrees ^[1], believing that Calcidius must have lived at the end of the 4th century or even at the beginning of the 5th. According to Waszink, the intellectual attitude reflected in Calcidius' work (the mix of neoplatonic and Christian thought) would be that of Milan of the end of the 4th century, an epoch in which the Italian city was a center of neoplatonism both pagan and Christian, and where Osius might have been an active imperial official around 395 CE. There is, though, no evidence of this supposed Osius of Milan. Also, Raymond Klibansky^[2] observed that Isidore of Seville, who usually highlighted the Hispanic origin of writers of the past, does not mention Calcidius. This argument, that Calcidius is related to Milan around 395 CE, has been refuted by Dillon^[3], who returns to the ancient, traditional hypothesis sustained in the inscription, and points out:

that Isidore did not mention all the Hispanic authors who existed before his epoch.
that the work of Calcidius scarcely had any influence in late antiquity, and was only consulted again after the 12th century; i.e., many centuries after Isidore's time.
and that the Platonic character of Calcidius' work would be a more than sufficient reason for Isidore (a fervent and devout Christian) not to include it among the famous authors of the early centuries of Hispanic Christianity.

According to Dillon, at around 350 CE it would have been impossible for "a real Christian" to have written a commentary to "a pagan text" like the Timaeus, especially in a manner that is clearly more partisan of the Platonic ideas that of the proper Christian faith.

Moreschini^[4] disagreees with both the traditional and the Waszink hypotheses. For Moreschini, the inscription might be an invention of someone who lived in the epoch in which Calcidius was re-discovered, namely, the 12th century.

References and notes

↑ Waszink JH (1964) Studien zum Timaioskommentar des Calcidius, I. Die erste Hälfte des Kommentars (mit Ausnahme der Kapitel über die Weltseele), Leiden, Brill.
↑ ????Continuity of the Platonic Tradition During the Middle Ages by Raymond Klibansky Kraus Intl Pubns (September 1982) ISBN 0527501301
↑ ????
↑ ????

Bibliography

Translation

Commentario al Timeo di Platone, Milano, 2003 ISBN 88-452-9232-0

Studies

BOEFT, J. DEN, Calcidius on fate. His doctrine and sources, Leiden, 1970.
Boeft, J. De, Calcidius on demons (Commentarius ch. 127-136), Leiden, 1977.
Calcidio, Commentario al «Timeo» di Platone (testo latino a fronte), a cura di Claudio Moreschini, con la collaborazione di Marco Bertolini, Lara Nicolini, Ilaria Ramelli, Bompiani, Il Pensiero Occidentale, Milán, 2003.
Easterling PE., Knox BMW (eds.)(1990).Historia de la literatura clásica (Cambridge University). I. Literatura griega, vers. esp. Federico Zaragoza Alberich, Madrid,
Gersh S (1986) Middle Platonism and Neoplatonism: The Latin Tradition, Publications in Medieval Studies, vol. 23. University of Notre Dame Press.
Platon, Oeuvres Complètes. Tomo X. Timée, Critias, texte établi et traduit par Albert Rivaud, Les Belles Lettres, París, 1970 (5ª reimpr.).
Winden, Van JMC (1959) Calcidius on matter. His doctrine and sources. A chapter in the history of platonism, Leiden, Brill, 1959.

External links

Plato's Timaeus by Calcidius, in a Manuscript of the 12th century found in Osney Abbey. Bodleian Library Collection.
Was Calcidius Spanish? The Timaeus and Atlantis in Gibraltar. Georgeos Díaz-Montexano. Madrid, February, 2007 (original article in Spanish).

[1] Waszink JH (1964) Studien zum Timaioskommentar des Calcidius, I. Die erste Hälfte des Kommentars (mit Ausnahme der Kapitel über die Weltseele), Leiden, Brill.

[2] ????Continuity of the Platonic Tradition During the Middle Ages by Raymond Klibansky Kraus Intl Pubns (September 1982) ISBN 0527501301

[3] ????

[4] ????

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Subpages}}
-''' Calcidius ''' (4th century CE) was a [[Christianism|Christian]] [[Philosophy|philosopher]] who was noted during the [[Middle Ages]] for his annotated translation of [[Plato|Plato's]] [[Timaeus]] into Latin, a translation which he dedicated to [[Osius]], [[Bishop]] of [[Córdoba]], [[Spain]].
+''' Calcidius ''' (4th century CE) was a [[Christianism|Christian]] [[Philosophy|philosopher]] who was noted during the [[Middle Ages]] for his annotated translation of [[Plato|Plato's]] [[Timaeus]] into Latin, a translation that he dedicated to [[Osius]], [[Bishop]] of [[Córdoba]], [[Spain]].
 For European western intellectuals during the [[Medieval Age]] and part of the Modern Age, this translation became an important tool for understanding the doctrines of Plato. Calcidius's work seems not to have been much recognized in his own day, but it came to be more widely admired and studied as knowledge of [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] declined.
 == Debates about his origin ==
+There have been many conjectures about who Calcidius was and where he came from, but there are few known facts. Tradition has it that Calcidius served as [[Archideacon|archideacon]] under Osius (also known as Hosius; supposedly the same Bishop of Cordova that along with the Roman priests [[Vito]] and [[Vicente]] represented the [[Pope]] in the first famous "[[ecumenical council]]" at [[Nicaea]]). There have been suggestions that he was of [[Jewish]] origin, or served as a [[deacon]] in the [[church]] of [[Carthage]], but no firm evidence on these points has surfaced. The only documents about his personality and private life are a few private letters dubiously attributed to him.
-There have been many conjectures about who Calcidius was and where he came from, but there are few facts. Tradition has it that Calcidius served as [[Archideacon|archideacon]] of Osius (supposedly the same Bishop of Cordova that along with the Roman priests [[Vito]] and [[Vicente]] represented the [[Pope]] in the first famous "[[Concilium Ecumenicum]]" of [[Nicea]]). There have been suggestions that he was of [[Jewish]] origin, or served as a [[deacon]] in the [[church]] of [[Carthage]], but no firm arguments or indisputable information on these points have yet surfaced. The only documents about his personality and private life are a few private letters dubiously attributed to him.
+There is, however, in his annotated translation of the first part of Plato's Timaeus, his personal dedication to Osius. This introductory letter is thus one of the most important elements used to identify the time and location of Calcidius' life. The letter suggests that Osius gave Calcidius the task of not only translating the Timaeus from [[Ancient Greek]] to Latin, but also of ''annotating'' the text, and, according to Calcidius, this was something that had never been tried before (''operis intemptati ad hoc tempus''). In some manuscripts, there are inscriptions which shed light on this: ''"Osius episcopo Calcidius archidiaconus"''. This suggests that Osius is a Bishop, and Calcidius his ''archideacon''. In this epoch there was indeed an Osius, Bishop of Cordova (approximately 257-357 CE) who was an important figure in western Christianity. Osius played an important role in the defense of the orthodoxy in the [[Councils of Nicea]] (325 CE) and [[Sardica]] (344 CE), and was dedicated to fighting [[Arianism]]. If it is this Osius whom Calcidius addresses in his dedication, then Calcidius wrote his annotated translation in around 325-350 CE.
-There is, however, in his annotated translation of the first part of Plato's Timaeus, his personal dedication to Osius. This introductory letter is thus one of the most important elements used to identify the time and location of Calcidius' life. The letter suggests that Osius gave Calcidius the task of not only translating the Timaeus from [[Ancient Greek]] to Latin, but also of annotating the text. (According to Calcidius, this was ''"something never tried before"'', ''operis intemptati ad hoc tempus''.) In some manuscripts, there are inscriptions which shed light on this: ''"Osius episcopo Calcidius archidiaconus"''. This suggests that Osius is a Bishop, and Calcidius his ''archideacon''. In fact, in this epoch there was indeed an Osius, Bishop of Cordova (approximately 257-357 CE) who was an important figure in western Christianity. Osius played a consequential role in the defense of the orthodoxy in the [[Councils of Nicea]] (325 CE) and [[Sardica]] (344 CE), and was dedicated to fighting the arrianismo. If it is this Osius whom Calcidius addresses in his dedication, then Calcidius wrote his annotated translation in around 325-350 CE.
+However, Waszink, the most recent editor of Calcidius, disagrees <ref>Waszink JH (1964) Studien zum Timaioskommentar des Calcidius, I. Die erste Hälfte des Kommentars (mit Ausnahme der Kapitel über die Weltseele), Leiden, Brill.</ref>, believing that Calcidius must have lived at the end of the 4th century or even at the beginning of the 5th. According to Waszink, the intellectual attitude reflected in Calcidius' work (the mix of [[neoplatonic]] and Christian thought) would be that of [[Milan]] of the end of the 4th century, an epoch in which the Italian city was a center of neoplatonism both pagan and Christian, and where Osius might have been an active imperial official around 395 CE. There is, though, no evidence of this supposed Osius of Milan. Also, Raymond Klibansky<ref>????''Continuity of the Platonic Tradition During the Middle Ages''
+by Raymond Klibansky Kraus Intl Pubns (September 1982) ISBN 0527501301</ref> observed that [[Isidore of Seville]], who usually highlighted the Hispanic origin of writers of the past, does not mention Calcidius. This argument, that Calcidius is related to Milan around 395 CE, has been refuted by Dillon<ref>????</ref>, who returns to the ancient, traditional hypothesis sustained in the inscription, and points out:
-However, Waszink, the last publisher - up to the present day - of Calcidius, disagreed<ref>????Timaeus a Calcidio Translatus Commentarioque Instructus by P. J. Jensen, J. H. Waszink, E. J. Brill </ref>, believing that Calcidius must have lived at the end of the 4th century or even at the beginning of the 5th. According to Waszink, the intellectual attitude reflected in Calcidius' work (the mix of neoplatonic and Christian) would be that of Milan of the end of the 4th century, an epoch in which the Italian city was a center of neoplatonism both pagan and Christian, and where Osius might have been an active imperial official around 395 CE. There is, though, no evidence of this supposed Osius of Milan. Also, Klibansky<ref>????''Continuity of the Platonic Tradition During the Middle Ages''
+*that Isidore did not mention all the Hispanic authors who existed before his epoch.
-by Raymond Klibansky Kraus Intl Pubns (September 1982) ISBN 0527501301</ref> observed that San [[Isidorus Hispalensis]], who usually highlighted the Hispanic origin of writers of the past, does not mention Calcidius. This argument, that Calcidius is related to Milan around 395 CE, has been refuted by Dillon<ref>????</ref>, who returns to the ancient, traditional hypothesis sustained in the inscription, and points out:
+*that the work of Calcidius scarcely had any influence in late antiquity, and was only consulted again after the 12th century; i.e., many centuries after Isidore's time.
+*and that the Platonic character of Calcidius' work would be a more than sufficient reason for Isidore (a fervent and devout Christian) not to include it among the famous authors of the early centuries of Hispanic Christianity.
-*that San Isidoro did not mention all the Hispanic authors who existed before his epoch.
+According to Dillon, at around 350 CE it would have been impossible for "a real Christian" to have written a commentary to "a pagan text" like the Timaeus, especially in a manner that is clearly more partisan of the Platonic ideas that of the proper Christian faith.
-*that the work of Calcidius scarcely had any influence in late antiquity, and was only consulted again after the 12th century; i.e., many centuries after the epoch of San Isidoro.
-*and that the  Platonic character of Calcidius' work would be a more than sufficient reason for San Isidoro (a fervent and devout Christian) not to include it among the famous authors of the early centuries of Hispanic Christianity.
-According to Dillon, at around the year 350 CE it would have been impossible for "a real Christian" to have written a commentary to "a pagan text" like the Timaeus, especially in a manner that is clearly more partisan of the Platonic ideas that of the proper Christian faith.
+Moreschini<ref>????</ref> disagreees with both the traditional and the Waszink hypotheses. For Moreschini, the inscription might be an invention of someone who lived in the epoch in which Calcidius was re-discovered, namely, the 12th century.
-On the other hand, Moreschini<ref>????</ref> disagreees with both the traditional and the Waszink hypotheses. For Moreschini, the inscription might be an invention of someone who lived in the epoch in which Calcidius was re-discovered, namely, the 12th century. Nevertheless, the traditional hypothesis -   that Calcidius was a disciple of Osius, Bishop of Cordova is supported by a lexical study of Calcidius's language which suggests a possible [[Andalusia|Andalusian]] or Hispanic origin.
-The fact of entrusting a translation of the Greek Timaeus into Latin suggests that Osius had a direct interest in the literary work. Calcidius only completed a translation of the first part, which suggests that this first part particularly included topics that Osius was interested in. Amongst other things, this first part includes Plato's account of [[Island Atlantis|Atlantis]].
-A [[Lexicography|lexical]] analysis on Calcidius' translation of the Timaeus reveals some details that support the  hypothesis that Calcidius was a disciple of Osius. These details are in passages of the Timaeus relating to the history of Atlantis.
-For example, Timaios 24e: '''ΝΗΣΟΝ ΓΑΡ ΠΡΟ ΤΟΥ ΣΤΟΜΑΤΟΣ ΕΙΧΕΝ Ο ΚΑΛΕΙΤΕ ΩΣ ΠΗΑΤΕ ΗΥΜΕΙΣ ΗΡΑΚΛΕΟΥΣ ΣΤΗΕΛΑΣ'''.<ref>Palinography of the writen Old Classic Greek from Plato's time according the medieval codices and MS of Plato's texts.</ref> The lexicographical and grammatical translation of this passage would be: ''"since it had an 'insular land' (ΝΗΣΟΣ) before of the mouth that you name, as you announce, the Pillars of Hercules"''. However, Calcidius translates (interprets) the Greek fragment as: "HABENS IN ORE '''[AC VESTIBULO SINUS]''' INSULAM, QUOD OS A VOBIS HERCULIS CENSETUR COLUMNAE"<ref>Calcidii in Platonis Timaeus. Osney Abbey Codex; MS. Digby 23. Bodleian Library Collection.</ref>, ''"it had in the mouth'' '''[and vestibule, in the gulf]''' ''an island, which is the one that you consider to be the Columns of Hercules."''.
-The part between square brackets does not exist in the Greek text of the Timaios, nor in any of the codices and well-known [[Manuscript|MS]]; nevertheless, Calcidius inserts it in his translation. This addition '''[AC VESTIBULO SINUS]''', is a ''clarification''  which is intended for Osius, as if Calcidius believed it was necessary to ''specify'' the place where Plato was locating "ATLANTIS INSULA", ie, before of the mouth of the strait of Hercules, but “in the same vestibule or entry (VESTIBULO), in the gulf (SINUS), ie, in the current Gulf of Cadiz (also known as ''Atlantic Gulf'' or ''Atlantic Pelagus''), which is the only ''Gulf'' that exists, just in the Atlantic mouth, before the Pillars of Hercules, i.e., the [[Strait of Gibraltar]].
-This precision of Calcidius about the location of the  "ATLANTIS INSULA" (as presented by Plato as a ''"true history"'' [ΑΛΗΘΙΝΟΝ ΛΟΓΟΝ]) --
-suggests that (1) Calcidius knew the region well; (2) and/or knew of the local traditions of the region; (3) or perhaps he had had access to other sources foreign to Plato himself, which unfortunately today we do not know. In any case, this precision that Calcidius adds or inserts '''[AC VESTIBULO SINUS]''', shows a clear intention to offer to the person who commissioned the translation (namely, his religious superior, Bishop Osius) a closer understanding of Atlantis, and this reinforces the idea that Osius may have had a special interest in this part of the Timaeus of Plato.
-Other evidences exist in the same annotated translation of Calcidius that support these facts. For example, in the Timaios 25a:
-"...ΤΑΔΕ ΜΕΝ ΓΑΡ ΟΣΑ ΕΝΤΟΣ ΤΟΥ ΣΤΟΜΑΤΟΣ ΟΥ ΛΕΓΟΜΕΝ ΦΑΙΝΕΤΑΙ ΛΙΜΗΝ ΣΤΕΝΟΝ ΤΙΝΑ ΕΧΩΝ ΕΙΣΠΛΟΥΝ..." (Timaios. Platon; 25a)<ref>Palinography of the writen Old Classic Greek from Plato's time according the medieval codices and MS of Plato's texts.</ref>
-''"…On the other hand, which is inside the mouth that we mention, appears like a narrow port for anyone that sails inwards..."''<ref>English translation from Castilian translation according to a lexicographical and grammar translation from the Greek codices by Georgeos Díaz-Montexano, 2000.</ref>
-Calcidius translates this to Latin as:
-''"...quippe hoc intra os sive Herculeas columnas fretum angusto quodam litore, '''[in quo etiam nunc portus veteris apparent vestigia, dividitur a continente]'''..."''<ref>Calcidii in Platonis Timaeus. Osney Abbey Codex; MS. Digby 23. Bodleian Library Collection.</ref>
-''"...what is here inside the mouth or of your Columns of Hercules, which is like a coast with a narrow strait '''[in it also now is the visible  vestige of an ancient port, which divides the continent]'''..."'' <ref>English translation from Castilian translation according to medieval codices in Latin (XII AD) of Calcidius in Platonis Timaeus.</ref>
-This interpolation by Calcidius, undoubtedly directed once again to his principal reader, Osius, adds a more descriptive explanation (and quite exact from the geographical point of view) on the strait of Hercules. It is a description that is arguably difficult to ascribe to someone who would not have had sufficient geographical knowledge of the area of the strait of the Pillars of Hercules.
-===fixes needed from here===
-In this sense, developer is much the hypothesis or speculation that Calcidius adds in this section, in which the strait of Hercules is like a ''"visible vestige of an ancient port, which divides the continent"'', because only in modern times have we known that [[Europe]] and [[Africa]], were once joined by the isthmus (or divided by the strait?) of Hercules; although also it is true that an intelligent mind could have come to this conclusion. In any case, the description of Calcidius of the strait of Hercules is  faithful to the appearance of the Strait of Gibraltar, which without doubt is like the ''"visible vestige of an ancient port, which divides the [European] continent"'' from the African.
-There are other arguments regarding the life of Calcidius. One question is whether his work more reflects [[Middle Platonism]] or[[Neoplatonism]]. This question has been an object of polemics between diverse authors. It has been suggested that Calcidius did not know the neoplatonic doctrine of Plotinus, even though Plotinus was used by all the Christian authors of his epoch). However, perhaps Calcidius was not interested in Plotinus, preferring the earlier Middle Platonism. The simple fact of this open question offers another point in favor of the Andalusian or Hispanic origin of Calcidius, as the neoplatonic doctrine of Plotinus developed exclusively in the Italian peninsula.
-This suggests that Calcidius was probably a philospher of Andalusian or Spanish origin, and probably a disciple of Osius, Bishop of Córdoba. If Calcidius was indeed Andalusian or Spanish, he may have known that classical sources, from [[Solon]] to the contemporaries of Plato, placed the Pillars of Hercules in a ''"visible vestige of an ancient port, which divides the [Europe and African] continent"'' - possibly, the Strait of Gibraltar.
 ==References and notes==
@@ Line 62: / Line 29: @@
 ==== Studies ====
 *BOEFT, J. DEN, Calcidius on fate. His doctrine and sources, Leiden, 1970.
-*BOEFT, J. DEN, Calcidius on demons (Commentarius ch. 127-136), Leiden, 1977.
+*Boeft, J. De, Calcidius on demons (Commentarius ch. 127-136), Leiden, 1977.
-*CALCIDIO, Commentario al «Timeo» di Platone (testo latino a fronte), a cura di Claudio Moreschini, con la collaborazione di Marco Bertolini, Lara Nicolini, Ilaria Ramelli, Bompiani, Il Pensiero Occidentale, Milán, 2003.
+*Calcidio, Commentario al «Timeo» di Platone (testo latino a fronte), a cura di Claudio Moreschini, con la collaborazione di Marco Bertolini, Lara Nicolini, Ilaria Ramelli, Bompiani, Il Pensiero Occidentale, Milán, 2003.
-*CICERÓN, Sobre la adivinación, Sobre el destino, Timeo, introd., trad. y notas de Ángel Escobar, Biblioteca Clásica Gredos, nº 271, Madrid, 1999.
+*Easterling PE., Knox BMW (eds.)(1990).Historia de la literatura clásica (Cambridge University). I. Literatura griega, vers. esp. Federico Zaragoza Alberich, Madrid,
-*EASTERLING, P. E & KNOX, B. M. W. (eds.), Historia de la literatura clásica (Cambridge University). I. Literatura griega, vers. esp. Federico Zaragoza Alberich, Madrid, 1990.
+*Gersh S (1986) ''Middle Platonism and Neoplatonism: The Latin Tradition, Publications in Medieval Studies,'' vol. 23. University of Notre Dame Press.
-*GERSH, Stephen, Middle Platonism and Neoplatonism: The Latin Tradition, Publications in Medieval Studies, vol. 23. University of Notre Dame Press, 1986.
+*Platon, Oeuvres Complètes. Tomo X. Timée, Critias, texte établi et traduit par Albert Rivaud, Les Belles Lettres, París, 1970 (5ª reimpr.).
-*PLATON, Oeuvres Complètes. Tomo X. Timée, Critias, texte établi et traduit par Albert Rivaud, Les Belles Lettres, París, 1970 (5ª reimpr.).
+*Winden, Van JMC (1959) Calcidius on matter. His doctrine and sources. A chapter in the history of platonism, Leiden, Brill, 1959.
-*WASZINK, J. H., Studien zum Timaioskommentar des Calcidius, I. Die erste Hälfte des Kommentars (mit Ausnahme der Kapitel über die Weltseele), Leiden, Brill, 1964.
-*WINDEN, VAN J. M. C., Calcidius on matter. His doctrine and sources. A chapter in the history of platonism, Leiden, Brill, 1959.
-== External linkage ==
-*[http://image.ox.ac.uk/show?collection=bodleian&manuscript=msdigby23a Plato's Timaeus by Calcidius, in a Manuscript of the XIIth century found in Osney Abbey]. Bodleian Library Collection.
-*[http://www.antiquos.com/La-Atlantida-de-Platon/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=10  Was Calcidius Spanish? The Timaeus and Atlantis in Gibraltar]. Georgeos Díaz-Montexano. Madrid, February, 2007 (original article in Spanish).
-== 'Calcidius' in other languages ==
-*Spanish: Calcidio
+== External links ==
-*German: Chalcidius
+*[http://image.ox.ac.uk/show?collection=bodleian&manuscript=msdigby23a Plato's Timaeus by Calcidius, in a Manuscript of the 12th century found in Osney Abbey]. Bodleian Library Collection.
-*Finnish: Kalkidios
+*[http://www.antiquos.com/La-Atlantida-de-Platon/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=10  Was Calcidius Spanish? The Timaeus and Atlantis in Gibraltar]. Georgeos Díaz-Montexano. Madrid, February, 2007 (original article in Spanish).[[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]]
-*French: Chalcidius
-*Italian: Calcidio
-*Japanese: カルキディウス

Calcidius: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 16:00, 23 July 2024

Contents

Debates about his origin

References and notes

Bibliography

Translation

Studies

External links

Navigation menu

Calcidius: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 16:00, 23 July 2024

Debates about his origin

References and notes

Bibliography

Translation

Studies

External links

Navigation menu

Search