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'''Singapore English''' refers to the varieties of [[English language|English]] spoken in [[Singapore]]. Those that least resemble [[Standard English]] are colloquially known by the [[portmanteau]] term ''Singlish'', though in academic discussion these are most often referred to as ''Singapore Colloquial English'' (SCE).
{{subpages}}
'''Singapore English''' refers to the varieties of [[English language|English]] spoken in [[Singapore]].<ref>See Brown (1992) for an introduction.</ref> Those that least resemble [[Standard English]] are colloquially known by the [[portmanteau]] term ''Singlish'', though in academic discussion these are most often referred to as ''Singapore Colloquial English'' (SCE). ''Singapore Standard English'' (SSE) is the term for varieties of Singapore English that are very similar to standard forms of English elsewhere, and is most clearly found in [[written language|writing]].<ref>Gupta (1989: 29; 35).</ref> It remains unclear whether SCE and SSE comprise the extremes of a continuum of varieties in Singapore, or whether speakers mostly ''[[code-switching|code-switch]]'' between them in a ''[[diglossia|diglossic]]'' situation.<ref>Deterding (2007:6).</ref> Though there are three other [[official language]]s in Singapore - [[Mandarin language|Mandarin]], [[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] - it is only English that is becoming the main language of speakers whose ancestors brought various [[Asian]] languages to Singapore.<ref>Deterding (2007: 4). The '[http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/c2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf Census of Population 2010]' (p.9-12; .pdf document) showed that English is the main language of the home for 41% of ethnic [[India]]ns, 32% of ethnic Chinese, and 17% of ethnic Malays in Singapore. English is also more likely to be the primary language of the home for speakers with a higher level of formal education (p.12). High levels of English usage also correlates with age: in 2010, over 50% of ethnic Chinese and Indian Singaporeans aged 5-14 years used English as their main language (p.11).</ref>


SCE may be difficult to understand for speakers of standard varieties, such as [[British English|British]], [[American English|American]] or [[Australian English]]. The main difficulties in understanding are Singlish's unique [[vocabulary]] and [[syntax]], which occur more often in informal [[speech]].
SCE is not spoken by all Singaporeans,<ref>Deterding (2007: 88-92).</ref> and is discouraged by the [[government of Singapore|government]] through its 'Speak Good English' campaign.<ref>'[http://www.goodenglish.org.sg Speak Good English]' official website.</ref> While SSE is generally easy for native and non-native English speakers to understand,<ref>Gupta (2005); Kirkpatrick and Saunders (2005).</ref> SCE differs in vocabulary, [[syntax (linguistics)|syntax]] and [[phonology]] from other varieties of English, though it shares much in common with [[Malaysian English]].<ref>Deterding (2007: 5).</ref>  [[affixation|Affixes]] such as [[plural]] ''-s'' may be optional, and the sound [l] may be realised as a [[vowel]]; for the strongest SCE speech, it does not contrast with [r].<ref>Brown and Deterding (2007: 12).</ref> Different ethnic groups in Singapore also speak English in different ways, though there are features, such as [[lexical borrowing|borrowed words]] and ''egg'' rhyming with ''vague'', that are common to almost everyone.<ref>Deterding (2007: 5); Brown and Deterding (2007: 11).</ref>


==Overview of Singapore Colloquial English==
Various explanations exist to account for the emergence of Singapore English as a distinct variety, including the idea that SCE is a [[creole (language)|creole]] - an assumption which, if based on the definition of a creole as originating from a [[pidgin (language)|pidgin]], is unsupported by the study of Singapore English's history and linguistic structure. Rather, SCE is categorised as one of the ''[[New Englishes]]'', i.e. spoken  as a working language in regions with a history of (usually [[United Kingdom|British]]) [[colonialism|colonial]] administration, but initially without a large population of English speakers. Singapore English and others, unlike a creole, emerged through constant contact with varieties of English.<ref>Bao (2010: 792).</ref>
Singapore Colloquial English (SCE) originated with the arrival of the British and the establishment of English language schools in Singapore. Soon, [[English language|English]] filtered out of schools and onto the streets. After some time, this new form of English, now loaded with substantial influences from [[Indian English]], [[Peranakan|Baba]] [[Bahasa Melayu|Malay]], and the southern varieties of [[Chinese language|Chinese]], became the language of the streets and began to be learned "natively" in its own right.


SCE shares substantial linguistic similarities with [[Malaysian English]] ('Manglish') in [[Malaysia]], although distinctions can be made, particularly in vocabulary. One noticeable difference is that "don't know" in Singlish is "donno", whereas in Manglish, "don't know" is used, although neither is confined entirely to one country or the other.
==Footnotes==
{{reflist|2}}
Initially, SCE and 'Manglish7 were essentially the same language, when Singapore and [[peninsular Malaysia]] were a single geographic entity - [[Malaya]]. In old Malaya, English was the language of the British administration whilst Malay was spoken as the [[lingua franca]] of the streets. Thus, even the Chinese would revert to Malay when speaking to Chinese people who did not speak the same Chinese dialect. 
 
After Singapore's independence in 1965, and successive [[Speak Mandarin Campaign|"Speak Mandarin" campaigns]], a subtle language shift among the post-'65 generation became more and more pronounced as Malay idiomatic expressions were, and continued to be, displaced by idioms borrowed from Chinese spoken varieties, such as [[Min Nan|Hokkien]].
 
The English language in Singapore is a [[sociolect]] continuum. The continuum runs through the following varieties:
 
'''Standard Singapore English''' (SSE): the 'highest-class' form of speech, used by the well-educated in formal situations. SSE is roughly the same as formal [[British English]], with the exception of some pronunciation differences that occur due to the influence of SCE pronunciation. Singaporean English does exhibit, however, a much smaller degree of SCE pronunciation features than do other variants of Singlish. For example, speakers of SSE attempt to restore the [[phoneme]]s /θ/ and /ð/ (as in '''th'''in and '''th'''en).
 
'''Singapore English''': an intermediate variety of English, including some features typical of SCE. At this level, intelligibility with other forms of English remains high.
 
'''Singapore Colloquial English''': This is the used by almost everyone, educated or not, in informal settings, and is the speech usually referred to as 'Singlish'. Here can be found all of the unique [[phonology|phonological]], lexical, and [[grammar|grammatical]] features of 'Singlish'. Many of these features can be attributed to Asian languages such as the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] languages, [[Malay language|Malay]], or Indian languages such as [[Tamil language|Tamil]], though some cannot. Some speakers of SCE may be more comfortable in another language and may count [[Hokkien]], for example, as their native tongue. English speakers coming from outside Singapore may have great difficulty understanding SCE.
 
The coexistence of these varieties can also be analyzed as a [[diglossia]], which is a split between a 'high' formal language and a 'low' informal language.
 
{| width=100% cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''The Sociolect Continuum of Singaporean English'''
|-
| width=20% style="background-color: #ccf; text-align: left;" | '''Basilect ("Singlish")''' <br /> "Dis guy Singrish si bey<br /> powdehfoo wan. Hoh seh liao lah!" <!-- even more Singlish needed here!!! -->
| width=10% style="background-color: #cdf;" |
| width=10% style="background-color: #cef;" |
| width=20% style="background-color: #cff;" | '''Mesolect''' <br /> "Dis guy Singlish <br />damn powerful one leh."
| width=10% style="background-color: #cfe;" |
| width=10% style="background-color: #cfd;" |
| width=20% style="background-color: #cfc; text-align: right;" | '''Acrolect ("Standard")''' <br /> "This person's Singlish <br /> is very good."
|}
 
The phenomenon of [[code switching]], or the alternation between multiple languages within the same conversation, further complicates the linguistic situation in Singapore. Since many Singaporeans can speak English at multiple points along the sociolect spectrum, code switching can occur very frequently between acrolectal and basilectal Singaporean English. In addition, as many Singaporeans are also speakers of the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] languages, [[Malay language|Malay]], or Indian languages such as [[Tamil language|Tamil]], code switching between English and other languages also occurs very frequently.
 
===Usage in society===
 
Due to its origins, Singlish shares many similarities with [[pidgin]] varieties of English, and can easily give off the impression of "broken English" or "bad English" to a speaker of some other, less divergent variety of English. In addition, the profusion of Singlish features, especially [[loanword]]s from Asian languages, [[mood (linguistics)|mood]] [[Grammatical particle|particles]], and [[topic-prominent language|topic-prominent]] structure, can easily make Singlish downright incomprehensible to a Briton or American. As a result, the use of Singlish is greatly frowned on by the government, and two former prime ministers, [[Lee Kuan Yew]] and [[Goh Chok Tong]], have publicly declared that Singlish is substandard English that handicaps Singaporeans, presents an obstacle to learning good English, and renders the speaker incomprehensible to everyone except another local. In the interest of promoting equality and better communication with the rest of the world, the government has launched the [[Speak Good English Movement]] to eradicate it, at least from formal usage. In spite of this, in recent years the use of Singlish on television and radio has proliferated as localized Singlish continues to be popular among most Singaporeans.
 
Singlish is strongly discouraged in [[Education in Singapore|Singaporean schools]] at a governmental level as it is believed to hinder the proper learning of standard English, and so faces a situation of [[diglossia]]. The use of Singlish when speaking in classes or to teachers, however officially frowned upon, is rather inevitable given that many teachers themselves are comfortable with the dialect. For many students, using Singlish is also inevitable when interacting with their peers, siblings, parents and elders. In [[polytechnic]]s, students feel the greater need to socialise with their peers in a learning environment less rigid than primary or secondary school, and as a result Singlish is popular. The government continues to wage an uphill battle in discouraging students from developing a Singlish-speaking habit.
 
Singaporean men find speaking Singlish necessary during their time in the military, or [[national service]] (NS), as Singlish has replaced [[Min Nan|Hokkien]] as the standard vernacular in the [[Singapore Armed Forces]]. The informality of Singlish fits well in stressful training situations, and are used among soldiers regardless of ethnic groups and level of education. Many phrases originating in the military have filtered into the lexicon over the years and they have become a method of distinguishing those who have undergone NS.
 
In most workplaces, Singlish is avoided in formal settings, especially at job interviews, meetings with clients, presentations or meetings. Nonetheless, select Singlish phrases are sometimes injected into discussions to build rapport or for a humorous effect, especially when the audience consists mainly of locals.
 
In other informal settings, such as during conversation with friends, or transactions in [[kopi tiam]]s (coffee shops) and shopping malls, Singlish is used without restriction. The only exception is that that it may be considered impolite to speak Singlish when a foreigner is present, as it is likely that he or she will have difficulty comprehending what is being said.
 
It should also be noted that Singlish itself consists of a diverse continuum ranging from an [[acrolect]] that is very similar to British or American English, to a [[mesolect]] that is more divergent, to a [[basilect]] that is nearly incomprehensible to the average native speaker of English. In a formal situation, the acrolect may be acceptable, while the basilect would be unacceptable; in an informal situation, the situation may be reversed with the acrolect being too stiff and the basilect more acceptable.
 
==Phonology==
 
Singlish [[pronunciation]], while built on a base of [[British English]], is also heavily influenced by Chinese and Malay.
 
There is variation within Singlish, both geographically and ethnically. Chinese, Malays, Indians, Eurasians, and other ethnic groups in Singapore all have distinct accents.
 
The East Coast area, particularly the districts that stretch from Siglap to Katong, is renowned as a residential and cultural mecca of sorts for the Peranakan and the Eurasian communities. The teaching professions, especially teaching English, was a popular option in the Eurasian community form the beginning of the last century up till the 1970's. As a result, whole generations of school children in the Siglap/Katong districts were taught English with a Eurasian accent. For example, words like "door" and "four" were pronounced as "doe" and "foe".
 
The phonology of Singlish:
 
===Consonants===
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! &nbsp;
! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! [[Labiodental consonant|Labiodental]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! [[Stop consonant|Stops]]
| {{IPA|p b}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|t d}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|k g}}
| &nbsp;
|-
! [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]]
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|tʃ dʒ}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]]
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|f (v)}}
| {{IPA|(θ ð) }}
| s (z)
| {{IPA|ʃ (ʒ)}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| h
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasals]]
| {{IPA|m}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| n
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|ŋ}}
| &nbsp;
|-
! [[Lateral consonant|Laterals]]
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|l}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximants]]
| {{IPA|w}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|r}}
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|j}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|}
(See [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] for an in-depth guide to the symbols.)
 
In general:
 
* The [[phonation|unvoiced]] [[stop consonant|stop]]s and [[affricate]]—/p/ '''p'''at, /t/ '''t'''in, /k/ '''c'''ome, /{{IPA|tʃ}}/ '''ch'''in—are sometimes [[unaspirated]], especially among [[Malay Singaporean]]s. ([[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspiration]] refers to the strong puff of air that may accompany the release of these stop consonants.) In other varieties of English, these [[phoneme]]s are usually aspirated, especially at the beginning of a word. The general effect of this is that, the Singlish pronunciation of '''p'''at, '''t'''in and '''c'''ome may sometimes seem closer to '''bat''', '''din''', and '''gum''' than other varieties of English.
 
* The [[phonation|voiced]] [[fricative]]s—/v/ '''v'''ery, /z/ '''z'''ero, /{{IPA|ʒ}}/ vi'''s'''ion—are unstable at the basilectal level, and may be substituted with other [[phoneme]]s, e.g. '''bery''' for '''very''', '''gero''' for '''zero'''. (This is much rarer outside the basilectal level.) In syllable-final positions they merge with their [[voicing|unvoiced]] counterparts—see point 6 below.
 
* The [[dental]] [[fricative]]s—/{{IPA|θ}}/ '''th'''in and /ð/ '''th'''en—merge into /t/ and /d/, so that '''three''' = '''tree''' and '''then''' = '''den'''. /{{IPA|θ}}/ is often replaced with a strongly aspirated /t/: [{{IPA|tʰ}}]. When put at the end of a word, '''-th''' are pronounced as '''-f''', for example, '''with''' or '''path''' is read as '''wiff''' and '''paff''' respectively. Under the influence of "with", '''without''' is often pronounced with /v/ in place of /ð/. The dental fricatives are restored in acrolectal speech.
 
* The distinction between /l/ and /r/ is not stable at the basilectal level, as evinced by TV personality [[Phua Chu Kang]]'s oft-repeated refrain to "''Use your blain!''".
 
* /l/ at the end of a syllable, pronounced as a velarized "[[Velarized alveolar lateral approximant|dark l]]" in British or American English, is often so velarized in Singlish that it approaches the [[Close-mid back unrounded vowel]] [{{IPA|ɤ}}], e.g. '''sale''' [{{IPA|seɤ}}]. /l also tends to be lost after /{{IPA|ɔ}}/, /o/, /u/, and for some basilectal speakers, /{{IPA|ə}}/. Hence '''pall''' = '''paw''', '''roll''' = '''row''', '''tool''' = '''two''', and for some, '''pearl''' = '''per'''.
 
* Syllabic consonants never occur. Hence '''taken''' [{{IPA|tekən}}] and '''battle''' [{{IPA|bɛtəɤ}}], never [{{IPA|tekn̩}}] or [{{IPA|bɛtl̩}}].
 
* [{{IPA|&#660;}}], the [[glottal stop]], is inserted at the beginning of all words starting with a vowel, similar to [[German pronunciation|German]]. As a result, final consonants do not experience [[liaison (linguistics)|liaison]], i.e. run onto the next word. For example, "run out of energy" would be "run-'''n'''out-'''t'''o-'''v'''energy" in most dialects of English, but "run 'out 'of 'energy" in Singlish.
 
* [[Plosive]]s are "geminate" (or double-length) if occurring in the middle of a word. Hence better [{{IPA|bɛt:ə}}], enter [{{IPA|ɛnt:ə}}]. To speakers of other dialects of English, this sounds like a short pause: "beh - (pause) - ter".
 
* [{{IPA|ɾ}}] is used instead of /t/ or /d/ in intervocalic position (i.e. between vowels), predominantly among [[Indian Singaporean]]s. This is reminiscent of American English.
 
* [{{IPA|&#660;}}] replaces final plosive consonants of [[syllable]]s in regular- to fast-paced speed speech, especially [[stop consonant|stops]]: [[Goodwood Park]] becomes '''Gu'-wu' Pa' '''. Fricative consonants like /s/ may be lost entirely. The plural ''-s'', for example, is often omitted. This may also be the result of influence from Chinese, which does not distinguish between single and plural nouns.
 
* In slower speech, final consonants are pronounced fully (though [[stop consonant|stop]]s are not released, like [[American English]] -t and -d). However, [[phonation|voicing]] distinction—i.e. /p/ & /b/, /t/ & /d/, etc.—are usually not kept in final consonants. This affects [[fricative]]s more than [[stop consonant|stop]]s. As a result, '''peace''' = '''peas''', '''let''' = '''led''', and so forth. This leads to some mergers of noun/verb pairs, such as '''belief''' with '''believe'''.
 
* Final consonant clusters simplify, especially fast speech. In general, [[stop consonant|stop]]s, especially /t/ and /d/, are lost if they come after another consonant: '''bent''' = '''Ben''', '''act''' = '''ack''', '''nest''' = '''Ness'''. /s/ is also commonly lost at the end of a consonant cluster: '''relax''' = '''relac''', although this pair has also been explained as the result of a reanalysation of '''relax''' as a 3rd person plural verb, '''he *''relacs'''''.
 
===Vowels===
 
'''[[Monophthong]]s'''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
! &nbsp;
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
 
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA|i}}
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|u}}
 
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{IPA|e}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|ə}}
| {{IPA|o}}
 
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{IPA|ɛ}}
| {{IPA|ɔ}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| &nbsp;
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|ɑ}}
|}
 
'''[[Diphthongs]]'''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
| {{IPA|ai}}
| {{IPA|au}}
| {{IPA|ɔi}}
| {{IPA|iə}}
| {{IPA|uə}}
|-
|}
 
The vowel system of Singlish can be generally derived by merging vowel [[phoneme]]s in the British [[Received Pronunciation]] vowel system. The following describes a typical system. Some speakers may further merge {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}}; other speakers make a distinction between {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/ɛə/}}, or {{IPA|/ɑ/}} and {{IPA|/ʌ/}}.
 
At the acrolectal level, the merged vowel [[phoneme]]s are distinguished to an extent, and elements from [[American English]] are introduced, such as [[r-colored vowel|rhotic vowels]] (pronouncing the "r" in bi'''r'''d, po'''r'''t, etc.)
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Singlish [[phoneme]]
! [[Received Pronunciation|RP]] [[phoneme]](s)
! as in
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/i/}}
| {{IPA|/iː/}}
| m'''ee'''t
|-
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}}
| p'''i'''t
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/e/}}
| {{IPA|/eɪ/}}
| d'''ay'''
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
| l'''e'''g
|-
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
| s'''e'''t
|-
| {{IPA|/æ/}}
| m'''a'''p
 
|-
| {{IPA|/ɛə/}}
| h'''air'''
 
|-
| rowspan="5" | {{IPA|/ɑ/}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/ɑː/}}
| c'''ar'''
 
|-
| p'''a'''ss
 
|-
| f'''a'''ther
 
|-
| {{IPA|/ʌ/}}
| b'''u'''s
 
|-
| {{IPA|/aɪ/}} (before /l/)
| m'''i'''le
 
|-
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/ɔ/}}
| {{IPA|/ɒ/}}
| m'''o'''ck
 
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɔː/}}
| th'''ough'''t
 
|-
| c'''our'''t
 
|-
| /o/
| {{IPA|/əʊ/}}
| l'''ow'''
 
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/u/}}
| {{IPA|/uː/}}
| r'''oo'''m
 
|-
| {{IPA|/ʊ/}}
| p'''u'''t
 
|-
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/ə/}} - see below
| {{IPA|/ɜː/}}
| b'''ir'''d
 
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ə/}}
| ide'''a'''
 
|-
| bett'''er'''
 
|-
| {{IPA|/ai/}}
| {{IPA|/aɪ/}}
| m'''y'''
 
|-
| {{IPA|/au/}}
| {{IPA|/aʊ/}}
| m'''ou'''th
 
|-
| {{IPA|/ɔi/}}
| {{IPA|/ɔɪ/}}
| b'''oy'''
 
|-
| {{IPA|/jə/}}
| {{IPA|/ɪə/}}
| h'''ere'''
 
|-
| {{IPA|/wə/}}
| {{IPA|/ʊə/}}
| t'''our'''
 
|-
| {{IPA|/jɔ/}}
| {{IPA|/jʊə/}}
| c'''ure'''
 
|-
| {{IPA|/ai jə/}}
| {{IPA|/aɪə/}}
| f'''ire'''
 
|-
| {{IPA|/au wə/}}
| {{IPA|/aʊə/}}
| p'''ower'''
|}
 
{{IPA|/ɛ/}} remains {{IPA|/ɛ/}} in Singlish, except when followed by a voiced plosive (/b/, /d/, or /g/), in which case it becomes {{IPA|/e/}} among some speakers. {{IPA|/ai/}} remains {{IPA|/ai/}} in Singlish, except when followed by /l/, in which case it monophthongizes to {{IPA|/ɑ/}}.
 
Examples of words have idiosyncratic pronunciations:<br/>
'''flour''' {{IPA|/flɑ/}} (expected: {{IPA|/flɑ wə/}} = '''flower''')<br/>
'''their''' {{IPA|/djɑ/}} (expected: {{IPA|/dɛ/}} = '''there''')<br/>
Flour/flower and their/there are therefore not homophones in Singlish.
 
In general, Singlish vowels are tenser — there are no lax vowels (which RP has in '''pit''', '''put''', and so forth). The diphthongs are pronounced with less glide than the [[diphthong]]s in RP. The vowels of '''day''' and '''low''' are pronounced as [[monophthong]]s—i.e. vowels with no glide.
 
In addition, where other varieties of English have an unstressed {{IPA|/ə/}}, reduced from another vowel, Singlish tends to restore the full vowel based on orthography. This is because Singlish de-emphasizes the role of stress. This can be seen in words such as '''a'''ccept {{IPA|/ɛksɛp/}}, '''e'''xample {{IPA|/ɛ(k)sɑmpəl/}}, purch'''a'''se {{IPA|/pətʃes/}}, maint'''e'''nance {{IPA|/mentɛnəns/}}, pr'''e'''s'''e'''ntation {{IPA|/prisɛnteʃən/}}, and so on.
 
In loanwords from [[Min Nan|Hokkien]] that contain [[nasal vowel]]s, the nasalization is often kept - one prominent example being the [[Grammatical mood|mood]] [[Grammatical particle|particle]] '''hor''', pronounced as {{IPA|[hõ]}}.
 
===[[Prosody]]===
 
One of the most prominent and noticeable features of Singlish is its unique intonation pattern, which is quite unlike [[British English|British]], [[American English|American]] or [[Australian English]], etc. For example:
 
* Singlish is [[Timing (linguistics)|syllable-timed]] compared to other varieties of English (which are mostly stress-timed). This in turn gives Singlish a very rhythmic and [[staccato]] feel.
 
* Pitch contours are more well-defined and distinct in Singlish than in other varieties of English. This makes Singlish sound as if it has the [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]] of Chinese.
** Singlish has a tendency to use a low tone for single-syllable "function" words like [[preposition]]s and [[conjunction]]s.
** Singlish has a tendency to start words on a lower tone and gradually "step" the tone up at each syllable, ending it on a high tone, or a falling tone if the word ends on a plosive (unless the plosive is lost).
** Singlish tends to use flat pitches across each syllable, and abrupt changes in pitch between syllables.
** The position of the stress in stress-based dialects of English (e.g. British and American) is de-emphasized. It can however be marked by a sharp "step-up" of tone at that syllable.
** Singlish tends to preserve the tones of loan words from Mandarin and other Chinese languages.
 
==Grammar==
 
The grammar of Singlish has been heavily influenced by other languages and dialects in the region, such as [[Bahasa Melayu|Malay]] and [[Chinese language|Chinese]], with some structures being identical to ones in Mandarin and other Chinese languages. As a result, Singlish has acquired some unique features, especially at the basilectal level. Note that all of the features described below disappear at the acrolectal level, as people in formal situations tend to adjust their speech towards accepted norms found in other varieties of English.
 
===Topic prominence===
 
Singlish is [[Topic-prominent language|topic-prominent]], like [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. This means that Singlish sentences often begin with a topic (or a known reference of the conversation), followed by a comment (or new information). Compared to other varieties of English, the [[semantic]] relationship between topic and comment is not important; moreover, nouns, verbs, adverbs, and even entire subject-verb-object phrases can all serve as the topic:
 
* '''Dis country''' weather very hot, one. &mdash; ''In this country, the weather is very warm.''
* '''Dat person there''' cannot trust. &mdash; ''That person over there is not trustworthy.''
* '''Tomorrow''' doh need bring camera. &mdash; ''You don't need to bring a camera tomorrow.''
* '''He play soccer''' very good also one leh. &mdash; ''He's very good at playing soccer too.''
 
The above constructions can be translated analogously into [[Chinese language|Chinese]], with little change to the word order.
 
The topic can be omitted when the context is clear, or shared between clauses. This results in constructions that appear to be missing a subject to a speaker of British, American, Australian or New Zealand English:
 
* Not good one lah. &mdash; ''This isn't good.''
* Cannot liddat go one lah. &mdash; ''You/it can't go just like that.''
* How come never show up? &mdash; ''Why didn't you/he/it show up?'' (See the use of ''never'' in place of ''didn't'' under the "Past tense" section.)
* I like badminton, dat's why go play every weekend. &mdash; ''I like badminton, so I play it every weekend.''
* He not feeling well, so decide to stay home and sleep. &mdash; ''He's not feeling well, so he decided to stay home and sleep.''
 
===Nouns===
 
Nouns are optionally marked for [[plurality]]. [[article (grammar)|Article]]s are also optional:
 
* He can play '''piano'''.
* I like to read '''storybook'''.
* Your computer got '''virus''' arnot? (Does your computer have viruses?)
 
It is more common to mark the plural in the presence of a [[Grammatical modifier|modifier]] that implies plurality, such as "many" or "both".
 
* He got a lot of '''apples'''.
 
===To be===
 
The [[copula]], which is the verb "to be" in most varieties of English, is treated somewhat differently in Singlish:
 
When occurring with an adjective, "to be" tends to drop out, and is often replaced by an [[adverb]], such as "very". The use of an adverb as the copula is strongly reminiscent of [[Chinese language|Chinese]] usage:
 
* Dis house '''very''' nice.
* Dat car '''not''' worth the money.
 
When occurring with "-ing" to form the continuous [[grammatical aspect|aspect]], "to be" may similarly drop out, leaving the "-ing" form as the independent continuous form:
 
* How come you so late you still '''playing''' music, ar?
* You '''looking''' for trouble, izzit?
 
Slightly less common is the dropping out of "to be" when used as an equative between two nouns, or as a [[locative]]:
 
* Dis boy the class monitor. (=class president)
* His house in Ang Mo Kio.
 
In general, "to be" drops out more behind nouns and pronouns (except "I", "he", and "she"), and much less behind a [[clause]] (what I think is...) or a [[demonstrative]] (this is...).
 
===Past tense===
 
Past tense marking is optional in Singlish. Marking of the past tense occurs most consistently in [[strong verb]]s (or irregular verbs), as well as verbs ending on -t and -d, such as:
 
* I '''went''' to Orchard Road yesterday.
* He '''accepted''' in da end.
 
Due to consonant cluster simplification, the past tense is unmarked when it is part of a complex [[consonant]] cluster:
 
* He '''talk''' for so long, never '''stop''', not even when I '''ask''' him.
 
The past tense tends to be unmarked if the verb in question goes on for an extended period, rather than as an isolated event (compare [[French language|French]] imperfect):
 
* When I was young, ar, I '''go''' to school every day.
* When he was in school, he always '''get''' good marks one.
* Last night I '''mug''' so much, so sian already. (mug = cram for exam. [[sian]] = bored/tired.)
 
===Change of state===
 
Instead of the past tense, a change of state can be expressed by adding ''already'' or ''liao'' (/{{IPA|liɑ̂u}}/) to the end of the sentence, analogous to [[Chinese language|Chinese]] 了 (''le''). This is not the same as the past tense, as it does not cover past habitual or continuous occurrences, and can refer to a real or hypothetical change of state in the past, present or future:
 
* He throw it '''liao'''. - (He has already thrown it away.)
* Aiyah, cannot wait any more, must go '''oreddy'''. (Oh dear, I cannot wait any longer. I must leave immediately.)
* I eat '''liao'''. (I ate ''or'' I have eaten.)
* Yesterday, dey go there '''oreddy'''. (They already went there yesterday.)
* This new game, you play '''liao''' or not? (As for this new game, have you played it yet?)
* Ah Song kena sai '''oreddy''', then how? (If Ah Song were to get in trouble, what would you do?)
 
===Negation===
 
Negation works in general like English, with '''not''' added after "to be", "to have", or [[modal]]s, and '''don't''' before all other verbs. Contractions (can't, shouldn't) are used alongside their uncontracted forms.
 
However, due to final cluster simplification, the -t drops out from negative forms, and -n may also drop out after nasalizing the previous vowel. This makes nasalization the only mark of the negative.
 
* I do ([{{IPA|dõ}}]) want. &mdash; ''I don't want to.''
 
Another effect of this is that in the verb "can", its positive and negative forms are distinguished only by [[vowel]]:
 
* I can /{{IPA|kɛn}}/ do this lah.
* I can't /{{IPA|kɑn}}/ do this lah.
 
Also, '''never''' is used as a negative past tense marker, and does not have to carry the English meaning. In this construction, the negated verb is never put into the past-tense form:
 
* How come today you '''never''' (=didn't) hand in homework?
* How come he '''never''' (=didn't) pay just now?
 
===Interrogative===
 
In addition to the usual way of forming yes-no questions, Singlish uses two more constructions:
 
In a construction similar (but not identical) to [[Chinese language|Chinese]], '''or not''' is appended to the end of sentences to form yes/no questions. ''Or not'' cannot be used with sentences already in the negative:
* This book you want '''or not'''? &mdash; ''Do you want this book?''
* Can '''or not'''? &mdash; ''Is this possible / permissible?''
 
The phrase '''is it''' is also appended to the end of sentences to form yes-no questions. It is generic like the [[French language|French]]'' n'est-ce pas?'', regardless of the actual verb in the sentence. '''Is it''' implies that the speaker is simply confirming something he/she has already inferred:
* They never study, '''is it'''? (No wonder they fail!)
* You don't like that, '''is it'''? (No wonder you had that face!)
* Alamak, you guys never read newspaper '''is it'''? &mdash; "What, haven't you guys ever read a newspaper?" (No wonder you aren't up to date!)
 
There are also many discourse particles, such as '''hah''', '''hor''', '''meh''', '''ar''', that are used in questions. (See the "Discourse particles" section further down in this article.)
 
===Reduplication===
 
Another feature strongly reminiscent of [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Malay language|Malay]], verbs are often repeated (e.g., TV personality Phua Chu Kang's "don't pray-pray!" pray = play.) In general verbs are repeated twice to indicate the [[delimitative aspect]] (that the action goes on for a short period), and three times to indicate greater length and continuity:
 
* You go '''tink tink''' a little bit, maybe den you will get answer. (Go and think over it for a while, and then you might understand.)
* So what I do was, I sit down and I '''tink tink tink''', until I get answer lor. (So I sat down, thought, thought and thought, until I understood.)
 
The use of verb repetition also serves to provide a more vivid description of an activity:
 
* Want to go Orcher '''walk walk see see''' or not? (Let's go shopping/sightseeing at Orchard Road.)
* Dun anyhow '''touch''' here '''touch''' there leh. (Please don't mess with my things.)
 
In another usage reminiscent of Chinese, [[noun]]s referring to people can be repeated for intimacy. Only monosyllabic nouns can be repeated:
 
* My '''boy-boy''' is going to Primary One already. (My son is about to enter Grade One.)
* We two '''friend-friend''' one. (We are close friends.)
 
[[Adjective]]s of one or two syllables can also be repeated for intensification:
 
* You go take the '''small-small''' one. (Retrieve the smaller item, please.)
 
Due to the frequent use of these repetitions on short words, Singlish expressions often sound as if they are spoken by children, which non-Singlish speakers find quite amusing, and contributes to the impression of Singlish as an informal and sometimes intimate language.
 
===''Kena''===
 
''Kena'' is used as an auxiliary to mark the passive voice, in addition to "to be" and "to get". It is derived from the Malay word with the same spelling that means to encounter or to come into physical contact. ''Kena'' can be used with either the infinitive or the past participle. It must be used with a verb that affects the subject in a negative way, and is similar in this respect to passive markers in Chinese, such as Hokkien ''tio'' or Mandarin 被 ''bèi'':
 
* He was scolded. = He got scolded. = He '''kena''' scolded. = He '''kena''' scold.
 
Not:
 
* *He '''kena''' praised.
 
When the context is given, ''Kena'' may be used without a verb:
 
* Better clean the room, otherwise you '''kena'''. (You will be punished if you don't tidy the room.)
 
Other Singlish phrases with ''Kena''
 
* kena arrow: be assigned an undesirable task
* kena hantam: be hit by something, such as a ball, or to be beaten up
* kena sabo: become a victim of sabotage or a practical joke
* kena sai: be harmed by an unpleasant event or object
* kena tekan: tekan means "press", as in "pressure", in Malay; the phrase means to be physically tortured or punished
* kena whack: be beaten badly, in games or in physical fights
 
===''One''===
 
The word ''one'' is used to emphasize the [[predicate]] of the sentence by implying that it is unique and characteristic. It is analogous to the use of particles like 嘅 ''ge'' in Cantonese, 啲 ''e'' in Hokkien, or 的 ''de'' in southern-influenced Mandarin. ''One'' used in this way '''does not''' correspond to any use of the word "one" in [[British English|British]], [[American English]], [[Australian English]], etc:
 
* Wah lau! So stupid '''one'''! - ''Oh my gosh! He's so stupid!''
* I do everything by habit '''one'''. - ''I always do everything by habit.''
* He never go to school '''one'''. - ''He doesn't go to school (unlike other people).''
 
Under the influence of southern-influenced Mandarin, ''de'' can also be used in place of ''one''.
 
===Discourse particles===
 
[[Grammatical particle|Particles]] in Singlish are highly comparable to [[Chinese language|Chinese]]. In general, [[discourse particle]]s occur at the end of a sentence. Their presence changes the meaning or the tone of the sentence, but not its grammaticality.
 
Particles are noted for keeping their [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]] regardless of the remainder of the sentence. Most of the particles are directly borrowed from southern Chinese varieties, with the tones intact.
 
====''Lah''====
 
The ubiquitous word '''lah''' (/{{IPA|lɑ́/ or /lɑ̂}}/) is used at the end of a sentence. Lim (2004) describes it as a particle that simultaneously asserts a position and entices solidarity.
 
Note that 'lah' is often written after a comma for clarity, but there is never a pause before a lah. This is because in the original Malay, 'lah' is appended to the end of the word and is not a separate word by itself.
 
In Malay, 'lah' is used to change a verb into a command or to soften its tone, particularly when usage of the verb may seem impolite. To drink is ''minum'', but 'Here, drink!' is "minumlah!". Similarly, 'lah' is frequently used with imperatives in Singlish:
 
* Drink, '''lah'''! (Come on, drink!)
 
'Lah' also occurs frequently with "Yah" and "No" (hence "Yah lah" and "No lah"). The results sound less brusque and facilitate the flow of conversation.
 
''Lah'' is often used with brusque, short, negative responses:
* Dun have, '''lah'''! (Brusque response to, "Lend me some money, can?")
* Dun know oreddy, '''lah'''! (Brusque response to someone fumbling with an explanation.)
 
''Lah'' is also used for reassurance:
* Dun worry, he can one '''lah'''. ''Don't worry, he can [do it].''
* It's okay '''lah'''. ''It's all right.''
 
''Lah'' can also be used to emphasize items in a spoken list, appearing after each item in the list.
 
Although ''lah'' can appear nearly anywhere, it '''cannot''' appear with a yes-no question. Another particle should be used instead:
 
* Where are you '''ar'''?
 
====''Wat''====
 
The particle '''wat''' (/{{IPA|wɑ̀t}}/), also spelled '''what''', is used to remind or contradict the listener, especially when strengthening another assertion that follows from the current one:
* But he very good at sports '''what'''. (Shouldn't you know this already, having known him for years?)
* You never give me '''what'''! (Or else I would have gotten it, right?)
 
====''Mah''====
 
'''Mah''' (/{{IPA|mɑ́}}/) is used to assert that something is obvious and final, and is usually used only with statements that are already patently true. It is often used to correct or cajole. This may seem condescending to the listener:
* This one also can work one '''mah'''!  &mdash; ''Can't you see that this choice will also work?!''
 
====''Lor''====
 
'''Lor''' (/{{IPA|lɔ́}}/), also spelled '''lorh''' or '''loh''', is a casual, sometimes jocular way to assert upon the listener either direct observations or obvious inferences. It also carries a sense of resignation, that "it happens this way and can't be helped":
* If you don't do the work, then you die-die '''lorh'''! &mdash; ''If you don't do the work, then you're dead!''
* Okay '''lorh''', you do what you want. &mdash; ''Fine, go ahead and do what you want.''
 
====''Leh''====
 
'''Leh''' (/{{IPA|lɛ́}}/) is used to soften a command, request, claim or complaint that may be brusque otherwise:
* Gimme '''leh'''. (Give it to me)
* How come you don't give me '''leh'''?
* The tix are seriously ex '''leh'''. &mdash; ''The tickets are seriously expensive.''
* But I believe safe is better than sorry '''leh'''.
 
====''Hor''====
 
'''Hor''' (/{{IPA|hɔ̃ˇ}}/), also spelled '''horh''', is used to ask for the listener's attention and consent/support/agreement:
* Then '''horh''', another person came out of the house.
* This shopping center also very nice '''horh'''.
 
====''Ar''====
 
'''Ar''' (/{{IPA|ɑ̌}}/), also spelled '''arh''' or '''ah''', is inserted between topic and comment (often to give a negative tone):
* Dis boy '''arh''', always so naughty one! &mdash; ''This boy is always so naughty!''
 
'''Ar''' (/{{IPA|ɑ̌}}/) with a rising tone is used to reiterate a rhetorical question:
* How come lidat one, '''arh'''? &mdash; ''Why is it like that? / Why are you like that?''
 
'''Ar''' (/{{IPA|ɑ̄}}/) with a mid-level tone, on the other hand, is used to mark a genuine question that does require a response: ('or not' can also be used in this context.)
* You going again '''ar'''? &mdash; "Are you going again?"
 
====''Hah''====
 
'''Hah''' (/{{IPA|hɑ̌}}/), also spelled '''har''', is used to express disbelief or used in a questioning manner.
*'''Har!''' He really ponteng class yesterday ar? - ''What? Is it true that he played truant (=ponteng) yesterday?''
*'''Har?''' How come like that one? End up kena caning! - ''What? How did he end up being caned?''
 
====''Meh''====
 
'''Meh''' (/{{IPA|mɛ́}}/) is used to form questions expressing surprise or skepticism:
* They never study '''meh'''? (I thought they do?)
* You don't like that '''meh'''? (I thought you do?)
* Really '''meh'''? (Is that really so?)
 
====''Siah''====
 
/{{IPA|sjɑ̀}}/, also spelled Sia, is used to express envy and for emphasis. The term "siah" is derived from the Malay word "sial" which means unlucky or damned. The term sial is still used extensively in the Malay context.
* He very solid '''siah'''. &mdash; ''He's damn capable.''
* Wahlau, very heng '''siah'''. &mdash; ''Goodness me (=Wahlau)! That was a close shave (=heng)!''
 
====''Damn''====
'''Damn''' is used as an intensifier, as in American and British English.
* He's '''damn''' capable. &mdash; ''He's really capable.''
 
====Summary====
 
Summary of discourse and other particles:
 
{| class="wikitable"
!Function
!Example
!Meaning
!Notes
|-
|(Nothing)
|Can.
|"It can be done."
|
|-
|Solidarity
|Can lah.
|"Rest assured, it can be done."
|
|-
| Seeking attention / support (implicit)
| Can hor / huh.
| "It can be done, right?"
|
|-
|Characteristic
|Can one / de.
|"This can be accomplished."
|
|-
|(Vividness?)
|Very nice lidat.
|"This looks very nice."
|
|-
|Acceptance / <br /> Resignation
|Can lor.
|"It can be done."
|
|-
|Assertion (implies that listener should already know)
|Can wat.
|"It can be done... shouldn't you know this?"
|
|-
|Assertion (strong)
|Can mah.
|"See?! It can be done!"
|
|-
|Assertion (softened)
|Can leh.
|"Can't you see that it can be done?"
|
|-
|Yes / No question
|Can or not?
|"Can it be done?"
|
|-
|Yes / No question <br /> (confirmation)
|Can is it?
|"It can be done, right?"
|
|-
|Yes / No question <br /> (scepticism)
|Can meh?
|"Um... are you sure it can be done?"
|
|-
| Confirmation
| Can ar (low).
| "So... it can really be done?"
|
|-
| Rhetorical
| Can ar (rising).
| "Alright then, don't come asking for help if problems arise."
|
|-
| Change of state
| Can already / liao.
| "It's done!"
|
|-
| (Indifference?)
| Can huh (low tone).
| "It can be done..."
|
|}
 
===Miscellaneous===
 
'''Nia''' is originated from hokkien which means 'only', mostly used to play down something that has been overestimated.
 
*Mary: ''"I not so old lah, i am 18 years old '''nia'''."''
 
'''"Then you know"''' is a phrase often used at the end of a sentence or after a warning of the possible negative consequences of an action. Can be directly translate as "and you will regret not heeding my advice".
 
* Mother: ''"Ah boy, don't run here run there, wait you fall down '''then you know''' ar."''
 
"There is"/"there are" and "has"/"have" are both expressed using '''got''', so that sentences can be translated in either way back into British / American / Australasian English. This is equivalent to the Chinese 有 ''yǒu'' (to have):
 
* '''Got''' question? ''Is there a question?'' / ''Do you have a question?''
* Yesterday ar, East Coast Park '''got''' so many people one! ''There were so many people at East Coast Park yesterday.'' / ''East Coast Park had so many people [there] yesterday.''
* This bus '''got''' air-con or not? ''Is there air-conditioning on this bus?'' / ''Does this bus have air-conditioning?''
* Where '''got'''!? lit. ''Where is there [this]?'', or less politely, ''There isn't/aren't any!'' also more loosely, ''What are you talking about?''; generic response to any accusation. Transliteration of the Malay "mana ada?" which has the same usage.
 
'''Can''' is used extensively as both a question particle and an answer particle. The negative is ''cannot''.
 
* Gimme lah, '''can'''? ''Give it to me, OK?''
* Can! ''Sure!''
* Cannot. ''No way.''
 
''Can'' can be repeated for greater emphasis or to express enthusiasm:
*Boss: ''"Can you send me the report by this afternoon?"'' Employee: ''"Can Can!"'' (No problem!)
 
The Malay word with the same meaning '''boleh''' can be used in place of ''can'' to add a greater sense of multiculturalism in the conversation. The person in a dominant position may prefer to use ''boleh'' instead:
*Employee:''"Boss, tomorrow can get my pay check or not?"'' Boss:''"Boleh lah ..."'' (sure/possibly)
 
The phrase '''like that''' is commonly appended to the end of the sentence to emphasize descriptions by adding vividness and continuousness. Due to its frequency of use, it is often pronounced '''lidat''' (lye-dat):
* He so stupid '''lidat'''. - ''He's pretty stupid, you know.''
* He acting like a little kid '''lidat'''. - ''He's really acting like a little kid, you know.''
''Like that'' can also be used as in other Englishes:
* Why he acting '''lidat'''?
* If '''lidat''', how am I going to answer to the ''gong shi teng''? - ''If that's the case, how am I going to answer to the board of directors?''
 
In British English, "also" is used before the predicate, while "too" is used after the predicative at the end of the sentence. In Singlish (also in American and Australian English), "also" (pronounced '''oso''', see phonology section above) can be used in either position.
 
* I '''oso''' like dis one. (I also like this one.)
* I like dis one '''oso'''. (I like this one too.)
 
"Also" is also used as a [[conjunction]]. In this case, "A also B" corresponds to "B although A". This stems from Chinese, where the words 也 (yě), 還 (hái) or 都 (dōu) (meaning also, usage depends on dialect or context) would be used to express these sentences.
 
* I try so hard '''oso''' cannot do. (I tried so hard, and still I can't do it. OR I can't do it even though I tried so hard.)
 
The order of the verb and the subject in an indirect question is the same as a direct question.
 
* "Eh, you know '''where is''' he?" ''"Excuse me, do you know '''where''' he '''is'''?"''
 
"Ownself" is often used in place of "yourself", or more accurately, "yourself" being an individual, in a state of being alone.
 
* "Har? He '''ownself''' go party yesterday for what?" ''"Why did he go to the party alone yesterday?"''
 
Not all expressions with the ''-self'' pronouns should be taken literally, but as the omission of "by":
* Wah, hungry liao! You eat yourself, we eat ourself, can? (Hey, I/you should be hungry by this time! Let's [[Going Dutch|go Dutch]], i.e. each person should pay for himself or herself at the restaurant.) - but this may also mean 'Let's split up and eat.' (then meet up again)
 
==Vocabulary==
{{main|Singlish vocabulary}}
 
Singlish formally takes after [[British English]] (in terms of [[spelling]] and [[abbreviation]]s), although naming conventions are in a mix of American and British ones (with American ones on the rise). For instance, local media have "sports pages" (sport in British English) and "soccer coverage" (the use of the word "soccer" is not common in British media). Singlish also uses many words borrowed from [[Min Nan|Hokkien]], the Chinese dialect native to more than 75% of the [[Chinese in Singapore]], and from [[Malay language|Malay]]. In many cases, English words take on the meaning of their Chinese counterparts, resulting in a shift in meaning. This is most obvious in such cases as "borrow"/"lend", which are functionally equivalent in Singlish and mapped to the same Mandarin word, "借" (jiè), which can mean to lend or to borrow. ("Oy, can lend me your calculator?")
 
==In pop culture==
===Movie===
 
*''[[Army Daze]]''
*''[[I Not Stupid]]''
*''[[I Not Stupid Too]]''
*''[[Money No Enough]]''
*''[[Talking Cock the Movie]]''
 
===Musical===
 
*''[[Oi! Sleeping Beauty]]''
 
===Television===
* ''[[Comedy Night]]''
* ''[[Phua Chu Kang]]''
* ''[[ABC DJ]]''
* ''[[Under One Roof (Singaporean television programme)|Under One Roof]]''
 
===Literature===
These published works are generally in English, but they describe the prevalence of Singlish in Singapore, and use many Singlish terms such as in dialogue.
 
*Chiang M  (1987) ''Army Daze.'' Singapore: Times Books International. ISBN 981-3002-12-3.
*Chong CS (1994), ''NS: An Air-Level Story.'' Singapore: Times Books International. ISBN 981-204-312-8.
 
==See also ==
*[[Lingua franca]]
*[[Singapore]]
*[[Linguistics]]
 
==References==
 
*Ho ML & Platt JT (1993) ''Dynamics of a Contact Continuum: Singapore English.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-824828-8.
*Lim L (2004) ''Singapore English: a Grammatical Description.'' Amsterdam: John Benjamins. ISBN 1-58811-576-3.
*Newbrook M (1987) ''Aspects of the Syntax of Educated Singaporean English: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Usage.'' Frankfurt am Main: Lang. ISBN 3-8204-9886-9.
* Platt JT & Weber H (1980) ''English in Singapore and Malaysia: Status, Features, Functions.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-580438-4.
 
==External links==
 
*[http://www.goodenglish.org.sg/SGEM Singapore Speak Good English Movement]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/4883/singlish.html Ah Beng's Guide to Singlish]
*[http://www.talkingcock.com/html/lexec.php?op=LexPKL&lexicon=lexicon The Coxford Singlish Dictionary @ Talkingcock.com]
*[http://www.singlishdictionary.com A Dictionary of Singlish and Singapore English]
*[http://www.une.edu.au/langnet/singlish.htm Singapore Colloquial English (Singlish)]
 
[[Category:Linguistics Workgroup]]
<!--[[Category:English language]]-->

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Singapore English refers to the varieties of English spoken in Singapore.[1] Those that least resemble Standard English are colloquially known by the portmanteau term Singlish, though in academic discussion these are most often referred to as Singapore Colloquial English (SCE). Singapore Standard English (SSE) is the term for varieties of Singapore English that are very similar to standard forms of English elsewhere, and is most clearly found in writing.[2] It remains unclear whether SCE and SSE comprise the extremes of a continuum of varieties in Singapore, or whether speakers mostly code-switch between them in a diglossic situation.[3] Though there are three other official languages in Singapore - Mandarin, Malay and Tamil - it is only English that is becoming the main language of speakers whose ancestors brought various Asian languages to Singapore.[4]

SCE is not spoken by all Singaporeans,[5] and is discouraged by the government through its 'Speak Good English' campaign.[6] While SSE is generally easy for native and non-native English speakers to understand,[7] SCE differs in vocabulary, syntax and phonology from other varieties of English, though it shares much in common with Malaysian English.[8] Affixes such as plural -s may be optional, and the sound [l] may be realised as a vowel; for the strongest SCE speech, it does not contrast with [r].[9] Different ethnic groups in Singapore also speak English in different ways, though there are features, such as borrowed words and egg rhyming with vague, that are common to almost everyone.[10]

Various explanations exist to account for the emergence of Singapore English as a distinct variety, including the idea that SCE is a creole - an assumption which, if based on the definition of a creole as originating from a pidgin, is unsupported by the study of Singapore English's history and linguistic structure. Rather, SCE is categorised as one of the New Englishes, i.e. spoken as a working language in regions with a history of (usually British) colonial administration, but initially without a large population of English speakers. Singapore English and others, unlike a creole, emerged through constant contact with varieties of English.[11]

Footnotes

  1. ↑ See Brown (1992) for an introduction.
  2. ↑ Gupta (1989: 29; 35).
  3. ↑ Deterding (2007:6).
  4. ↑ Deterding (2007: 4). The 'Census of Population 2010' (p.9-12; .pdf document) showed that English is the main language of the home for 41% of ethnic Indians, 32% of ethnic Chinese, and 17% of ethnic Malays in Singapore. English is also more likely to be the primary language of the home for speakers with a higher level of formal education (p.12). High levels of English usage also correlates with age: in 2010, over 50% of ethnic Chinese and Indian Singaporeans aged 5-14 years used English as their main language (p.11).
  5. ↑ Deterding (2007: 88-92).
  6. ↑ 'Speak Good English' official website.
  7. ↑ Gupta (2005); Kirkpatrick and Saunders (2005).
  8. ↑ Deterding (2007: 5).
  9. ↑ Brown and Deterding (2007: 12).
  10. ↑ Deterding (2007: 5); Brown and Deterding (2007: 11).
  11. ↑ Bao (2010: 792).
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