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== Background ==
 
=== East Asia and the Chinese Tributary System ===
== The Chinese Tributary System in the 16th Century ==


In the late [[16th century]], the [[Ming Dynasty]] of [[China]] dominated the [[East Asia]]n geopolitics. China established hegemony over the smaller neighboring countries in form of the [[tributary system]]. In practice, the tributary states maintained complete autonomy, and they sent ambassadors periodically to the imperial court in China to pay homage and to exchange gifts with the Chinese government officials. Many of the tributary states received the exclusive privilege from China to participate in the lucrative international trade within the tributary system. China justified the tributary system with the doctrine of the [[Mandate of Heaven]], that the Chinese Emperor rules to the benefit of mankind by decree from Heaven.<ref name="mandate">[http://wsu.edu/~dee/GLOSSARY/TIENMING.HTM T'ien ming: The Mandate of Heaven]. Richard Hooker (1996, updated 1999). ''World Civilizations''. Washington State University.</ref> Many Asian countries, including Korea,<ref name="Edward7">Rockstein, Edward D., Ph.D. pp.&nbsp;7</ref><ref name="Edward10-11">Rockstein, Edward D., Ph.D. pp.&nbsp;10-11</ref> voluntarily joined the tributary system in pursuit of the legal tally trade and the legitimacy in their rule by the [[Mandate of Heaven]].  
In the late [[16th century]], the [[Ming Dynasty]] of [[China]] dominated the [[East Asia]]n geopolitics. China established hegemony over the smaller neighboring countries in form of the [[tributary system]]. In practice, the tributary states maintained complete autonomy, and they sent ambassadors periodically to the imperial court in China to pay homage and to exchange gifts with the Chinese government officials. Many of the tributary states received the exclusive privilege from China to participate in the lucrative international trade within the tributary system. China justified the tributary system with the doctrine of the [[Mandate of Heaven]], that the Chinese Emperor rules to the benefit of mankind by decree from Heaven.<ref name="mandate">[http://wsu.edu/~dee/GLOSSARY/TIENMING.HTM T'ien ming: The Mandate of Heaven]. Richard Hooker (1996, updated 1999). ''World Civilizations''. Washington State University.</ref> Many Asian countries, including Korea,<ref name="Edward7">Rockstein, Edward D., Ph.D. pp.&nbsp;7</ref><ref name="Edward10-11">Rockstein, Edward D., Ph.D. pp.&nbsp;10-11</ref> voluntarily joined the tributary system in pursuit of the legal tally trade and the legitimacy in their rule by the [[Mandate of Heaven]].  


While Japan never officially submitted to the tributary system, China granted Japan the right to engage in a limited tribut ary trade, which China considered as a form of tribute from Japan.<ref name="submit">Cheow pp.&nbsp;6</ref> The two treaties, in 1404 and 1434, that admitted Japan into the tributary trade required Japan to police its waters to protect the trade routes from the [[wako]] pirates. However, as the Japanese lords failed to effectively control its piracy, China expelled Japan from the tributary system in 1547.<ref>Villiers pp.&nbsp;71</ref> The trade issue would emerge again, during the wartime negotiations between Japan and China, as a non-provocative excuse from the Japanese for their first invasion of Korea.
While Japan never officially submitted to the tributary system, China granted Japan the right to engage in a limited tributary trade, which China considered as a form of tribute from Japan.<ref name="submit">Cheow pp.&nbsp;6</ref> The two treaties, in 1404 and 1434, that admitted Japan into the tributary trade required Japan to police its waters to protect the trade routes from the [[wako]] pirates. However, as the Japanese lords failed to effectively control its piracy, China expelled Japan from the tributary system in 1547.<ref>Villiers pp.&nbsp;71</ref> The trade issue would emerge again, during the wartime negotiations between Japan and China, as a non-provocative excuse from the Japanese for their first invasion of Korea.
 
[[China]] considered Korea as a key asset to its tributary system. Geopolitically, China needed the alliance with Korea in order to outflank the hostile [[Jurchen]] tribes in Manchuria. Also, Korea added to China's efforts to protect the sea from the Japanese pirates. Culturally, the Chinese and the Koreans considered themselves the pinnacles of civilization, similarly to today's cross-national cultural identities (such as "the West") based on scientific and technological achievements. The very strict [[Confucian]] ideologies that imbued the two countries excluded the foreign customs and learnings as immoral and barbaric.


[[China]] considered Korea as a key asset to the tributary system. Unlike the previous Korean kingdoms, the [[Joseon Dynasty]] had adopted [[Neoconfucian]] reforms in its founding, <ref name="Sansom142">Sansom, George. pp.&nbsp;142, 167-180.</ref> The two dynasties, Ming and Joseon, shared much in common: both emerged during the fourteenth century at the fall of the Mongolian rule, embraced the [[Confucian]] ideals in society, and faced similar external threats (the [[Jurchen]] raiders and the Japanese [[Wakō]] pirates).<ref name="turnbull11">Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp.&nbsp;11.</ref> As for the internal, both China and Korea were troubled with fights among the competing political factions, which would significantly influence the decisions made by the Koreans prior to the war, and those made during the war by the Chinese. <ref name="SWOPE771">Swope. 2002. pp.&nbsp;771</ref><ref>Turnbull, Stephen. 2002, pp.&nbsp;13.</ref> Dependence on each other for trade and also having common enemies resulted in Korea and Ming China having a friendly relationship.


[[China]] assumed the role of a big brother, [[Korea]] the middle brother, and [[Japan]] the younger brother.<ref name="Alagappa117">[http://books.google.com/books?id=rnNnOxvm3ZwC&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117&dq=china+tributary+system+big+brother+korea&source=web&ots=IIlObnPWEw&sig=8oDox81E5Vwsm0kr3ESGGVaCq0o Alagappa, Muthiah pp.&nbsp;117]</ref>
[[China]] assumed the role of a big brother, [[Korea]] the middle brother, and [[Japan]] the younger brother.<ref name="Alagappa117">[http://books.google.com/books?id=rnNnOxvm3ZwC&pg=PA117&lpg=PA117&dq=china+tributary+system+big+brother+korea&source=web&ots=IIlObnPWEw&sig=8oDox81E5Vwsm0kr3ESGGVaCq0o Alagappa, Muthiah pp.&nbsp;117]</ref>

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The cultures of Korea and Japan are distinct but highly related given the shared origins of the peoples who came to inhabit the islands of Japan and the Korean peninsula. Both cultures also developed from much that is rooted in China: their written languages, for instance both involve Chinese characters, though few are regularly used in the modern states of North and South Korea. Relations between these three nations, as well as links with the People's Republic of China and Taiwan, have varied from cordial to strained since the close of World War II.

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598)

The Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598) comprised a major war between Japan and the alliance of China and Korea. The land and naval battles took place almost entirely on the Korean peninsula and its nearby waters; Korea was devastated. The Japanese leader Shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s main objective was to conquer China; he fought Korea when it denied him passage. The war consisted of two main invasions from Japan – the first in 1592 and 1593, and the second from 1597 to 1598. In the first invasion 200,000 Japanese overran almost all of Korea, but then were forced back by a Chinese counterattack. The war finally ended late in 1598 after the death of Hideyoshi as the Japanese withdrew.

The war is known by several English titles, including the Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea, in context of Hideyoshi’s biography; the Seven Year War, in reference to the war’s duration; and the Imjin War, in reference to the first year of the war in Korean (See Sexagenery Cycle).[1]


The Chinese Tributary System in the 16th Century

In the late 16th century, the Ming Dynasty of China dominated the East Asian geopolitics. China established hegemony over the smaller neighboring countries in form of the tributary system. In practice, the tributary states maintained complete autonomy, and they sent ambassadors periodically to the imperial court in China to pay homage and to exchange gifts with the Chinese government officials. Many of the tributary states received the exclusive privilege from China to participate in the lucrative international trade within the tributary system. China justified the tributary system with the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven, that the Chinese Emperor rules to the benefit of mankind by decree from Heaven.[2] Many Asian countries, including Korea,[3][4] voluntarily joined the tributary system in pursuit of the legal tally trade and the legitimacy in their rule by the Mandate of Heaven.

While Japan never officially submitted to the tributary system, China granted Japan the right to engage in a limited tributary trade, which China considered as a form of tribute from Japan.[5] The two treaties, in 1404 and 1434, that admitted Japan into the tributary trade required Japan to police its waters to protect the trade routes from the wako pirates. However, as the Japanese lords failed to effectively control its piracy, China expelled Japan from the tributary system in 1547.[6] The trade issue would emerge again, during the wartime negotiations between Japan and China, as a non-provocative excuse from the Japanese for their first invasion of Korea.

China considered Korea as a key asset to its tributary system. Geopolitically, China needed the alliance with Korea in order to outflank the hostile Jurchen tribes in Manchuria. Also, Korea added to China's efforts to protect the sea from the Japanese pirates. Culturally, the Chinese and the Koreans considered themselves the pinnacles of civilization, similarly to today's cross-national cultural identities (such as "the West") based on scientific and technological achievements. The very strict Confucian ideologies that imbued the two countries excluded the foreign customs and learnings as immoral and barbaric.


China assumed the role of a big brother, Korea the middle brother, and Japan the younger brother.[7]

Notes

  1. ↑ Today in Korean History, Yonhap News Agency of Korea, 2006-11-28. Retrieved on 2007-03-24. (in English)
  2. ↑ T'ien ming: The Mandate of Heaven. Richard Hooker (1996, updated 1999). World Civilizations. Washington State University.
  3. ↑ Rockstein, Edward D., Ph.D. pp. 7
  4. ↑ Rockstein, Edward D., Ph.D. pp. 10-11
  5. ↑ Cheow pp. 6
  6. ↑ Villiers pp. 71
  7. ↑ Alagappa, Muthiah pp. 117

See also

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