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In [[mathematics]], a '''trace''' is a property of a [[matrix]] and of a [[linear operator]] on a [[vector space]]. The trace plays an important role in the [[representation theory]] of [[Group (mathematics)|groups]] (the collection of traces is the character of the representation) and in [[statistical thermodynamics]] (the trace of a thermodynamic observable times the density operator is the thermodynamic average of the observable).  
In [[mathematics]], a '''trace''' is a property of a [[matrix]] and of a [[linear operator]] on a [[vector space]]. The trace plays an important role in the [[representation theory]] of [[Group (mathematics)|groups]] (the collection of traces is the character of the representation) and in [[statistical thermodynamics]] (the trace of a thermodynamic observable times the density operator is the thermodynamic average of the observable).  
==Definition for matrices==
==Definition and properties of matrix traces==
Let '''A''' be an  ''n'' × ''n'' matrix; its trace is defined by
Let '''A''' be an  ''n'' × ''n'' matrix; its trace is defined by
:<math>
:<math>
Line 16: Line 16:
\end{pmatrix} \Longrightarrow \mathrm{Tr}(\mathbf{A}) = 2.1-0.1+3.0 = 5.0
\end{pmatrix} \Longrightarrow \mathrm{Tr}(\mathbf{A}) = 2.1-0.1+3.0 = 5.0
</math>
</math>
'''Theorem.'''  
'''Theorem''' <br>
 
Let '''A''' and '''B''' be ''n''&times;''n'' matrices, then Tr('''A B''') = Tr ('''B A''').<br>
Let '''A''' and '''B''' be square finite-sized matrices, then Tr('''A B''') = Tr ('''B A''').
 
'''Proof'''
'''Proof'''
:<math>
:<math>
Line 26: Line 24:
</math>
</math>


'''Theorem'''
'''Theorem'''<br>
 
The trace of a matrix is invariant under a similarity transformation Tr('''B'''<sup>&minus;1</sup>'''A B''') = Tr('''A''').<br>
The trace of a matrix is invariant under a similarity transformation Tr('''B'''<sup>&minus;1</sup>'''A B''') = Tr('''A''').
 
'''Proof'''
'''Proof'''
:<math>
:<math>
Line 42: Line 38:
\mathrm{Tr}( \mathbf{E}) &= n \qquad\hbox{(trace of identity matrix)}\\
\mathrm{Tr}( \mathbf{E}) &= n \qquad\hbox{(trace of identity matrix)}\\
\mathrm{Tr}( \mathbf{O}) &= 0  \qquad\hbox{(trace of zero matrix)} \\
\mathrm{Tr}( \mathbf{O}) &= 0  \qquad\hbox{(trace of zero matrix)} \\
\mathrm{Tr}( \mathbf{ABC}) &= \mathrm{Tr}( \mathbf{CAB})=\mathrm{Tr}( \mathbf{BCA}) \\
\mathrm{Tr}(c\mathbf{A}) & = c \mathrm{Tr}(\mathbf{A}) \quad c\in\mathbb{C} \\
\mathrm{Tr}(c\mathbf{A}) & = c \mathrm{Tr}(\mathbf{A}) \quad c\in\mathbb{C} \\
\mathrm{Tr}(\mathbf{A}^\mathrm{T}) & = \mathrm{Tr}(\mathbf{A}) \\
\end{align}
\end{align}
</math>
</math>
'''Theorem'''<br>
Let '''S''' be a symmetric matrix, '''S'''<sup>T</sup> = '''S''',  and '''A''' be an antisymmetric matrix, '''A'''<sup>T</sup> = &minus;'''A'''. Then
:<math>
\mathrm{Tr}(\mathbf{S}\mathbf{A}) = \mathrm{Tr}(\mathbf{A}\mathbf{S}) =0 .
</math><br>
'''Proof'''
:<math>
\mathrm{Tr}(\mathbf{SA}) = \mathrm{Tr}\big((\mathbf{SA})^\mathrm{T}\big) = \mathrm{Tr}(\mathbf{A}^\mathrm{T}\mathbf{S}^\mathrm{T}) = -\mathrm{Tr}(\mathbf{AS}) = -\mathrm{Tr}(\mathbf{SA})
</math>
A number equal to minus itself can only be zero.
===Relation to eigenvalues===
We will show that  ''the trace of an n&times;n  matrix  is equal to the sum of its n eigenvalues (the n roots of its secular equation)''.
The secular determinant of an  ''n'' &times; ''n'' matrix '''A''' is the determinant of '''A''' &minus;&lambda; '''E''', where &lambda; is a number (an element of a [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''F''). If we put the secular determinant equal to zero we obtain the [[secular equation]] of '''A''' (also known as the [[characteristic equation]]),
:<math>
\Delta(\lambda) \equiv
\begin{vmatrix}
A_{11}-\lambda & A_{12} & \cdots & \cdots & A_{1n} \\
A_{21} & A_{22}-\lambda &  \cdots & \cdots & A_{2n} \\
\cdots &  \cdots        &                \ddots \\
A_{n1} & A_{n2}        &        &\cdots & A_{nn}-\lambda \\
\end{vmatrix} = 0
</math>
The secular determinant is a polynomial in &lambda;:
:<math>
\Delta(\lambda) = (-\lambda)^n + P_1(-\lambda)^{n-1} + P_2(-\lambda)^{n-2}+ \cdots +P_{n-1}(-\lambda) + P_n = 0.
</math>
The coefficient ''P''<sub>1</sub> of (&minus;&lambda;)<sup>''n''&minus;1</sup> is equal to the trace of '''A''' (and incidentally ''P''<sub>n</sub> is the determinant of '''A''').  If the field ''F'' is algebraically closed (such as the field of complex numbers) then the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]] states that the secular equation has exactly ''n'' roots (zeros) &lambda;<sub>''i''</sub>, ''i'' =1, ..., ''n'', the [[eigenvalue]]s of '''A''' and the following factorization holds
:<math>
\Delta(\lambda) = (\lambda_1-\lambda)(\lambda_2-\lambda)\cdots(\lambda_n-\lambda).
</math>
Expansion shows that the coefficient ''P''<sub>1</sub> of (&minus;&lambda;)<sup>''n''&minus;1</sup> is equal to
:<math>
\sum_{i=1}^n \lambda_i = P_1 =\mathrm{Tr}(\mathbf{A}).
</math>
'''Note:''' It is not necessary that '''A''' has ''n'' linearly independent [[eigenvector]]s, although ''any'' '''A'''  has ''n'' eigenvalues in an algebraically closed field.


==Definition for a linear operator on a finite-dimensional vector space==
==Definition for a linear operator on a finite-dimensional vector space==
Line 105: Line 141:


'''Note'''.  To avoid misunderstanding: not all linear operators on ''V''<sub>''n''</sub>  possess ''n'' linearly independent eigenvectors.
'''Note'''.  To avoid misunderstanding: not all linear operators on ''V''<sub>''n''</sub>  possess ''n'' linearly independent eigenvectors.
===Finite-dimensional inner product space===
When the ''n''-dimensional linear space ''V''<sub>''n''</sub> is equipped with a positive definite [[inner product]],  an expression for the matrix of a linear operator and its trace can be given. These expressions can be generalized to inner product spaces of infinite dimension and are of great importance in [[quantum mechanics]].
Let
:<math>
\{v_1, v_2, \ldots, v_n\} \quad\hbox{with}\quad \langle v_i | v_j\rangle =\delta_{ij}, \quad i,j=1,\ldots, n,
</math>
be an  orthonormal basis for ''V''<sub>''n''</sub>. The symbol &delta;<sub>''ij''</sub> stands for the [[Kronecker delta]].  The matrix of <font style="vertical-align: top"><math>\hat{A}</math></font> with respect to this basis is given by
:<math>
\hat{A} v_i = \sum_{j=1}^n\; v_j A_{ji}  .
</math>
Project with ''v''<sub>''k''</sub>:
:<math>
\langle v_k|\hat{A}| v_i\rangle = \sum_{j=1}^n\; \langle v_k |v_j \rangle \; A_{ji}
= \sum_{j=1}^n\; \delta_{kj} \; A_{ji}  = A_{ki}.
</math>
Hence
:<math>
A_{ij} = \langle v_i|\hat{A}| v_j\rangle \quad\Longrightarrow\quad
\mathrm{Tr}(\hat{A}) = \sum_{i=1}^n \langle v_i|\hat{A}| v_i\rangle.
</math>
==Infinite-dimensional space==
==Infinite-dimensional space==
The trace of an operator on an infinite-dimensional linear space is not well-defined for all operators on all infinite-dimensional spaces. Even if we restrict our attention to infinite-dimensional spaces with countable bases, the generalization of the definition is not always possible.  For instance, we saw above that the trace of the identity operator on a finite-dimensional space is equal to the dimension of the space, so that a simple extension of the definition leads to a trace of the identity operator that is infinite (i.e., not defined).
The trace of a linear operator on an infinite-dimensional linear space is not always defined.  For instance, we saw above that the trace of the identity operator on a finite-dimensional space is equal to the dimension of the space, so that a simple extension of the definition leads to a trace of the identity operator that is infinite, i.e., the trace is undefined. In fact, the property of having a finite trace is a severe restriction on a linear operator.


However, certain linear operators have the property
We consider an infinite-dimensional space with an inner product (a [[Hilbert space]]). Let <font style="vertical-align: top"><math>\hat{T}</math></font> be a linear operator on this space with the property
:<math>
:<math>
\hat{A} v_i = \alpha_i w_i,\quad i=1,2,\ldots, \quad \hbox{and} \quad \alpha_i\in \mathbb{R},
(\hat{T}^\dagger\hat{T})\; v_i = \alpha_i^2 \; v_i,\quad i=1,2,\ldots,\infty \quad \hbox{and} \quad \alpha_i^2\in \mathbb{R},
</math>
where {''v''<sub>''i''</sub>} is an [[orthonormal]] basis of the space.
Note that the operator
<font style="vertical-align: top"><math>\hat{T}^\dagger\hat{T}</math></font> is [[self-adjoint operator|self-adjoint]] and [[positive definite]], i.e.,
:<math>
\langle (T^\dagger T) w |  w \rangle = \langle  w | (T^\dagger T) w \rangle = \langle T w | T w \rangle  \ge 0 \quad\hbox{for any}\quad w.
</math>
</math>
where both ''v''<sub>''i''</sub> and  ''w''<sub>''i''</sub> form a basis of the space. Note that often ''v''<sub>''i''</sub> = ''w''<sub>''i''</sub>  (for instance for [[self-adjoint operator]]s), but this is not necessary. When, furthermore, the following sum converges, one may define  the trace of  <font style="vertical-align: top"><math>\hat{A}</math></font>:
From this follows that the eigenvalues of  <font style="vertical-align: top"><math>\hat{T}^\dagger\hat{T}</math></font> are positive&mdash;so that they may be written as squares&mdash;and its eigenvectors ''v''<sub>''i''</sub> are orthonormal.
 
If the following sum of square roots of eigenvalues converges,  
:<math>
:<math>
\mathrm{Tr}(\hat{A}) = \sum_{i=1}^\infty \alpha_i < \infty
\sum_{i=1}^\infty \alpha_i < \infty,
</math>
</math>
Operators that have  a well-defined trace are called "trace class operators". As in the finite-dimensional case it can be proved that this trace is independent of basis.
then the trace of  <font style="vertical-align: top"><math>\hat{T}</math></font> can be defined by
:<math>
\mathrm{Tr}(\hat{T}) \equiv \sum_{i=1}^\infty \langle v_i |T| v_i \rangle,
</math>
i.e., it can be proved that this summation converges as well.  Operators that have  a well-defined trace are called "trace class operators" or sometimes "nuclear operators".


An important example is the exponential of the self-adjoint operator ''H'',
As in the finite-dimensional case  the trace is independent of the choice of (orthonormal) basis,
:<math>
\mathrm{Tr}(\hat{T}) = \sum_{i=1}^\infty \langle w_i |T| w_i \rangle < \infty,
</math>
for any orthonormal basis {''w''<sub>''i''</sub>}. 
 
An important example of a trace class operator is the exponential of the self-adjoint operator ''H'',
:<math>
:<math>
e^{-\beta\hat{H}},\quad \beta \in \mathbb{R},\quad 0< \beta < \infty.
e^{-\beta\hat{H}},\quad \beta \in \mathbb{R},\quad 0< \beta < \infty.
</math>
</math>
The operator ''H'' being self-adjoint has only real eigenvalues &epsilon;<sub>''i''</sub>.  When ''H'' is bounded from below (its lowest eigenvalue is finite) then the sum
The operator ''H'', being self-adjoint, has only real eigenvalues &epsilon;<sub>''i''</sub>.  When ''H'' is bounded from below (its lowest eigenvalue is finite) then the sum
:<math>
:<math>
\mathrm{Tr}e^{-\beta H} = \sum_{i=1}^\infty e^{-\beta \epsilon_i} < \infty
\mathrm{Tr}e^{-\beta H} = \sum_{i=1}^\infty e^{-\beta \epsilon_i} < \infty
</math>
</math>
converges. This trace is the canonical [[partition function (statistical physics)|partition function ]] of [[statistical physics]].
converges. This trace is the canonical [[partition function (statistical physics)|partition function ]] of [[statistical physics]].
==Reference==
*F. R. Gantmacher, ''Matrizentheorie'', Translated from the Russian by H. Boseck, D. Soyka, and K. Stengert, Springer Verlag, Berlin (1986). ISBN 3540165827
*N. I Achieser and I. M. Glasmann, ''Theorie der linearen Operatoren im Hilbert Raum'', Translated from the Russian by H. Baumgärtel,  Verlag Harri Deutsch, Thun (1977). ISBN 3871443263

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In mathematics, a trace is a property of a matrix and of a linear operator on a vector space. The trace plays an important role in the representation theory of groups (the collection of traces is the character of the representation) and in statistical thermodynamics (the trace of a thermodynamic observable times the density operator is the thermodynamic average of the observable).

Definition and properties of matrix traces

Let A be an n × n matrix; its trace is defined by

where Aii is the ith diagonal element of A.

Example

Theorem
Let A and B be n×n matrices, then Tr(A B) = Tr (B A).
Proof

Theorem
The trace of a matrix is invariant under a similarity transformation Tr(B−1A B) = Tr(A).
Proof

where we used B B−1 = E (the identity matrix).

Other properties of traces are (all matrices are n × n matrices):

Theorem
Let S be a symmetric matrix, ST = S, and A be an antisymmetric matrix, AT = −A. Then


Proof

A number equal to minus itself can only be zero.

Relation to eigenvalues

We will show that the trace of an n×n matrix is equal to the sum of its n eigenvalues (the n roots of its secular equation).

The secular determinant of an n × n matrix A is the determinant of A −λ E, where λ is a number (an element of a field F). If we put the secular determinant equal to zero we obtain the secular equation of A (also known as the characteristic equation),

The secular determinant is a polynomial in λ:

The coefficient P1 of (−λ)n−1 is equal to the trace of A (and incidentally Pn is the determinant of A). If the field F is algebraically closed (such as the field of complex numbers) then the fundamental theorem of algebra states that the secular equation has exactly n roots (zeros) λi, i =1, ..., n, the eigenvalues of A and the following factorization holds

Expansion shows that the coefficient P1 of (−λ)n−1 is equal to

Note: It is not necessary that A has n linearly independent eigenvectors, although any A has n eigenvalues in an algebraically closed field.

Definition for a linear operator on a finite-dimensional vector space

Let Vn be an n-dimensional vector space (also known as linear space). Let be a linear operator (also known as linear map) on this space,

.

Let

be a basis for Vn, then the matrix of with respect to this basis is given by

Definition: The trace of the linear operator is the trace of the matrix of the operator in any basis. This definition is possible since the trace is independent of the choice of basis.

We prove that a trace of an operator does not depend on choice of basis. Consider two bases connected by the non-singular matrix B (a basis transformation matrix),

Above we introduced the matrix A of in the basis vi. Write A' for its matrix in the basis wi

It is not difficult to prove that

from which follows that the trace of in both bases is equal.

Theorem

Let a linear operator on Vn have n linearly independent eigenvectors,

Then its trace is the sum of the eigenvalues

Proof

The matrix of in basis of its eigenvectors is

where δji is the Kronecker delta.

Note. To avoid misunderstanding: not all linear operators on Vn possess n linearly independent eigenvectors.

Finite-dimensional inner product space

When the n-dimensional linear space Vn is equipped with a positive definite inner product, an expression for the matrix of a linear operator and its trace can be given. These expressions can be generalized to inner product spaces of infinite dimension and are of great importance in quantum mechanics.

Let

be an orthonormal basis for Vn. The symbol δij stands for the Kronecker delta. The matrix of with respect to this basis is given by

Project with vk:

Hence

Infinite-dimensional space

The trace of a linear operator on an infinite-dimensional linear space is not always defined. For instance, we saw above that the trace of the identity operator on a finite-dimensional space is equal to the dimension of the space, so that a simple extension of the definition leads to a trace of the identity operator that is infinite, i.e., the trace is undefined. In fact, the property of having a finite trace is a severe restriction on a linear operator.

We consider an infinite-dimensional space with an inner product (a Hilbert space). Let be a linear operator on this space with the property

where {vi} is an orthonormal basis of the space. Note that the operator is self-adjoint and positive definite, i.e.,

From this follows that the eigenvalues of are positive—so that they may be written as squares—and its eigenvectors vi are orthonormal.

If the following sum of square roots of eigenvalues converges,

then the trace of can be defined by

i.e., it can be proved that this summation converges as well. Operators that have a well-defined trace are called "trace class operators" or sometimes "nuclear operators".

As in the finite-dimensional case the trace is independent of the choice of (orthonormal) basis,

for any orthonormal basis {wi}.

An important example of a trace class operator is the exponential of the self-adjoint operator H,

The operator H, being self-adjoint, has only real eigenvalues εi. When H is bounded from below (its lowest eigenvalue is finite) then the sum

converges. This trace is the canonical partition function of statistical physics.

Reference

  • F. R. Gantmacher, Matrizentheorie, Translated from the Russian by H. Boseck, D. Soyka, and K. Stengert, Springer Verlag, Berlin (1986). ISBN 3540165827
  • N. I Achieser and I. M. Glasmann, Theorie der linearen Operatoren im Hilbert Raum, Translated from the Russian by H. Baumgärtel, Verlag Harri Deutsch, Thun (1977). ISBN 3871443263