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|<div style="background-color:lightyellow; color:darkblue; font-size:90%"><center>'''"Share your knowledge. It's a way to achieve immortality."'''</center><br><center>&mdash;''''' Life's Little Instruction Book,''''' by Jackson Brown and<br />H. Jackson Brown, Jr.</center></div>
|<div style="background-color:lightyellow; color:darkblue; font-size:90%"><center>'''"Share your knowledge. It's a way to achieve immortality."'''</center><br><center>&mdash;''''' Life's Little Instruction Book,''''' by Jackson Brown and<br />H. Jackson Brown, Jr.</center></div>
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==mind==
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Before the scientific revolution of the 1600s, most people viewed the world as organic.  Leonardo da Vinci, despite his reputation among others as an engineer, wrote:
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<blockquote>
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<p style="margin-left: 2.0%; margin-right: 6%; font-size: 1.0em; font-family: Trebuchet MS;"> We can say that the earth has a vegetative soul, and that its flesh is the land, its bones are the structure of the rocks ... its blood is the pools of water ... its breathing and its pulse are the ebb and flow
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of the sea.<ref>’’’<u>Quoted by:
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*Brooke JH. (1991)  [http://books.google.com/books?id=RSKCTddNf1oC Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives.] Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521283744, ISBN 9780521283748
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*Crane T. (2003) [http://www.questia.com/read/103951236 The Mechanical Mind: A Philosophical Introduction to Minds, Machines, and Mental Representation.] Routledge.</ref> </p>
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</blockquote>
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==Linnaeus==
==Linnaeus==

Revision as of 23:42, 31 January 2009

"Share your knowledge. It's a way to achieve immortality."

— Life's Little Instruction Book, by Jackson Brown and
H. Jackson Brown, Jr.

Contents

mind

Before the scientific revolution of the 1600s, most people viewed the world as organic. Leonardo da Vinci, despite his reputation among others as an engineer, wrote:

We can say that the earth has a vegetative soul, and that its flesh is the land, its bones are the structure of the rocks ... its blood is the pools of water ... its breathing and its pulse are the ebb and flow of the sea.[1]


Linnaeus

Also referred to as Carolus Linnaeus, and by his Swedish noble name, Carl von Linné.

Eighteenth century Swedish naturalist (renown especially as a botanist), and doctor and professor of medicine, Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)[2] [3] established for the first time a widely acceptable and fruitful set of principles for classifying plants and animals into the groupings we know as species (a distinct interbreeding group of living systems) and genera (separate groups comprising few or many closely related species). Linnaeus based his generic classification on morphological features, what he called the ‘natural characters’ of genera, examining the morphology of all the parts of the plants he classified.

Linnaeus also developed a consistent naming system for his classification of genera and species — called the binomial nomenclature — which assigned a name to a presumed species in two parts, first a Latin name for the assigned genus (singular form of the plural ‘genera’), and second, a species-specific Latin name indicating the particular species (‘species’ used in both singular and plural) assigned to the genus.

Thus, scientists designate us humans as Homo sapiens,[4] meaning the ‘sapiens’-named species of the genus named ‘Homo’. They designate extinct species of humans belonging to the genus Homo, as, for example, Homo erectus, Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis, and Homo ergaster. (Note the conventional use of ‘italics’ for the genus and species names, capitalization of the initial letter of the genus.)

[Linnaeus’s] system, with two Latin names for every species of animal or plant, is still used the world over and simplifies communication between all botanists, gardeners, zoologists, birdwatchers etc….All the ornithologists of Europe know what a Parus major is. However a Danish birdlover may not know that what he calls a "musvit" is what the French call a "mésange charbonnière" and the English call a "Great Tit" [or “Titmouse”]. In Swedish it is "talgoxe"….Linnaeus' idea was that if we learn the Latin names we won't need to know the names in other languages.[5]

Using his system, Linnaeus eventually classified some 7,700 plant species and some 4,400 animal species.[6]

Refs

  1. ↑ ’’’Quoted by:
  2. ↑ Linné online. Uppsala Universitet.
    • <u>Website description:</u> On this website Uppsala University presents research relating to the work of one of the most famous professors throughout its history, namely Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) (1707 - 1778).</li>
  3. ↑ Quammen D. (2007) A Passion for Order. National Geographic Magazine June 2007.
    • Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus was an early information architect. He believed that every kind of plant and animal on Earth should be named and classified.</li>
  4. ↑ <u>Note: Linnaeus gave us the name Homo sapiens.
  5. ↑ [http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/life/1_0.html Why is Linnaeus world-famous?
  6. ↑ (2004). A Test Case for DNA Barcodes to Identify Species. PLoS Biology Vol. 2, No. 10, e357 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020357

Test html to wiki converter

Citation Description Findings

Vickers and Smith, 2002[#34 34]

Seven trials were included in the review (three prevention and four treatment trials); only two studies had sufficient information for complete data extraction. The homeopathic remedy oscillococcinum appears safe and effective in reducing the duration of influenza, but has no effect on prevention.

Lewith et al., 2002[#28 28]

Randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial of 242 participants aged 18 to 55 years. Trial compared an oral homeopathic treatment to placebo in asthmatic people allergic to house dust. Authors found the homeopathic treatment "no better than placebo." They noted "some differences between the homeopathic immunotherapy and placebo for which we have no explanation."

Oberbaum et al., 2001[#35 35]

Randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial in 32 children; 30 completed the study. Traumeel S, a homeopathic skin cream, may significantly reduce the severity and length of pain and inflammation of the tissues lining the inside of the mouth from chemotherapy in children being treated with bone marrow transplantation.

Taylor et al., 2000[#36 36]

Randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial of 51 participants aged 17 years or older (50 completed the study). Team tested the hypothesis that homeopathy is a placebo by examining effects of an oral homeopathic preparation in patients with perennial allergic rhinitis. They found a "significant objective improvement in nasal airflow" compared with the placebo group. However, both groups reported subjective improvement in "nasal symptoms" (with no statistically significant difference between groups). Authors concluded that the objective evidence supports that "homeopathic dilutions differ from placebo."

Jacobs et al., 2000[#37 37]

Randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial of 126 children; 116 completed the study. Individualized homeopathic treatments improved digestive problems in children with acute childhood diarrhea. Results are consistent with findings of a previous study.

Weiser et al., 1999[#38 38]

Randomized, double-blinded trial of 146 people. For the treatment of hay fever, a homeopathic nasal spray is as efficient and well tolerated as a conventional therapy, cromolyn sodium.

Rastogi et al., 1999[#39 39]

Randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial of 100 people between 18 and 50 (71 percent male/29 percent female). A subgroup of patients with HIV in the symptomatic phase, receiving treatment, had increased levels of CD4 cells at the end of the trial; the placebo subgroup did not.

Vickers et al., 1998[#40 40]

Randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial of 519 people; 400 completed the study. Homeopathic remedies, including arnica, are not effective for muscle soreness following long-distance running.

Weiser et al., 1998[#41 41]

Randomized, double-blinded, controlled trial of 119 people; 105 completed the study. The homeopathic treatment vertigoheel, and the standard treatment of betahistine, are equally effective in reducing the frequency, duration, and intensity of vertigo attacks.


Test table

Citation Description Findings
Ernst, 2002 (33) Analyzed 17 systematic reviews (including meta-analyses) of controlled clinical trials for homeopathy. Author found that the reviews failed to provide strong evidence in favor of homeopathy. No homeopathic remedy was proven by convincing evidence to yield clinical effects that are different from placebo or from other control intervention for any medical condition. Positive recommendations for use of homeopathy in clinical practice are not supported, and "homeopathy cannot be viewed as an evidence-based form of therapy" until more convincing results are available.
Linde et al., 2001 (42) Analyzed the methodological quality of 207 randomized trials collected for 5 previously published reviews on homeopathy, two herbal medicines (St. John's wort and echinacea), and acupuncture. Authors found that the majority of trials had major weaknesses in methodology and/or reporting. Homeopathy trials were "less frequently randomized...and reported less details on dropouts and withdrawals" than the other types.
Cucherat et al., 2000 (17) Analyzed 16 randomized, controlled trials (17 comparisons were made) comparing homeopathic treatment to placebo. Work was part of a report prepared for the European Union on the effectiveness of homeopathy. Authors found that the "strength of evidence remains low" because of trial flaws and other limitations. They added that "at least one [of the tested homeopathic treatments] shows an added effect relative to placebo." Group recommended that homeopathy be studied further using the same methods used to study conventional medicine.
Ernst and Pittler, 1998 (43) Systematic review of eight trials. Rigorous clinical trials indicate arnica is not more effective than a placebo; most trials studied use of arnica for tissue trauma.
Linde et al., 1997 (6) Analyzed 89 trials. Each trial was controlled; compared homeopathy to a placebo; was either randomized or double-blinded; and yielded a written report. Authors concluded that their results were not compatible with a hypothesis that the clinical effects of homeopathy are completely due to placebo. However, they found insufficient evidence that homeopathy is clearly efficacious for any single clinical condition. They stated that further research is warranted if it is rigorous and systematic.
Kleijnen et al., 1991 (21) Assessed 105 controlled trials of homeopathy, 68 randomized. Authors found a positive trend in the evidence, regardless of the quality of the trial or the method of homeopathy used. They cautioned, however, that definitive conclusions about homeopathy could not be drawn, because many of the trials were not of good quality and the role of publication bias was unknown.
Systematic Reviews of Clinical Trials on Single Medical Conditions
Long and Ernst, 2001 (44) Systematic review of four osteoarthritis clinical trials. Research on homeopathic treatment for osteoarthritis is insufficient to reliably assess the clinical effectiveness of homeopathic treatment of osteoarthritis.
Jonas et al., 2000 (45) Meta-analysis of six controlled clinical trials. Controlled clinical trials indicate that homeopathic remedies appear to work better than a placebo in studies of rheumatic syndromes, but there are too few studies to draw definitive conclusions, and efficacy results are mixed.

NCCAM has provided this material for your information. It is not intended to substitute for the medical expertise and advice of your primary health care provider. We encourage you to discuss any decisions about treatment or care with your health care provider. The mention of any product, service, or therapy is not an endorsement by NCCAM.

Tree of Life

In his revolutionary 1859 book, On The Origin Of Species By Means Of Natural Selection, Or The Preservation Of Favoured Races In The Struggle for Life, Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882 analogized evolution as a "Tree of Life" in which the endless forms of extinct and living things emerged as if from branches upon branches of a tree springing from a single root:

As buds give rise by growth to fresh buds, and these, if vigorous, branch out and overtop on all sides many a feebler branch, so by generation I believe it has been with the great Tree of Life, which fills with its dead and broken branches the crust of the earth, and covers the surface with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications. [7]

I request the reader to turn to the diagram illustrating the action, as formerly explained, of these several principles [of natural selection]; and he will see that the inevitable result is that the modified descendants proceeding from one progenitor become broken up into groups subordinate to groups. [italics added] [8]

Refs

  1. ↑ ’’’Quoted by:
  2. ↑ Linné online. Uppsala Universitet.
    • <u>Website description:</u> On this website Uppsala University presents research relating to the work of one of the most famous professors throughout its history, namely Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) (1707 - 1778).</li>
  3. ↑ Quammen D. (2007) A Passion for Order. National Geographic Magazine June 2007.
    • Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus was an early information architect. He believed that every kind of plant and animal on Earth should be named and classified.</li>
  4. ↑ <u>Note: Linnaeus gave us the name Homo sapiens.
  5. ↑ [http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/life/1_0.html Why is Linnaeus world-famous?
  6. ↑ (2004). A Test Case for DNA Barcodes to Identify Species. PLoS Biology Vol. 2, No. 10, e357 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020357
  7. ↑ Darwin CR. (1859) On The Origin Of Species By Means Of Natural Selection, Or The Preservation Of Favoured Races In The Struggle For Life. (p148) London: John Murray, Albemarle Street.
  8. ↑ Darwin CR. (1859) On The Origin Of Species By Means Of Natural Selection, Or The Preservation Of Favoured Races In The Struggle For Life. (p430) London: John Murray, Albemarle Street.


allo

In their book on the endocrine factors in nagging, Derek Chadwick and Jamie Goode characterize allostasis as follows, and contrast it with homeostasis:

Speaking generally, allostasis is distinct from homeostasis in maintaining a compensated equilibrium rather than a physiological equilibrium: stability is maintained at a price. The allostatic set point is abnormal relative to the homeostatic set point, the system is inherently less stable, and it has a relatively narrow dynamic range. Finally, a system in allostasis leads to pathology whereas a system in homeostasis does not. [9]


theoret biol

  • Biometrika - Biometrika is primarily a journal of statistics in which emphasis is placed on papers containing original theoretical contributions of direct or potential value in applications. From time to time, papers in bordering fields are also published. http://www3.oup.co.uk/biomet/
  • Rivista di Biologia / Biology Forum - Rivista di Biologia / Biology Forum is an international journal for theoretical biology. It was founded in 1919 at the University of Perugia ( Italy). Topics include: morphogenesis, evolution, genetics, biophysics, biomathematics. http://www.tilgher.it/biologiae.html
  • Theory in Biosciences - Theory in Biosciences, formerly Biologisches Zentralblatt, focuses on new concepts in theoretical biology. It also covers analytical or modelling approaches and the biophilosophy or history of ideas. Central topics are systems theory, systems dynamics, theoretical ecology, evolution, cognition, theoretical neurobiology, visual computation, simulation strategies, and bioethics. http://www.stockton-press.co.uk/tob/


References

Citations and notes

Most citations to articles listed here include links to full-text. Accessing full-text may require personal or institutional subscription. Nevertheless, usually the links will show the abstracts of the articles, free without subscription. Links to books variously may open to full-text, or to the publishers' description of the book with or without downloadable selected chapters, reviews, and table of contents. Books with links to Google Books often offer extensive previews of the books' text.


  1. ↑ ’’’Quoted by:
  2. ↑ Linné online. Uppsala Universitet.
    • <u>Website description:</u> On this website Uppsala University presents research relating to the work of one of the most famous professors throughout its history, namely Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) (1707 - 1778).</li>
  3. ↑ Quammen D. (2007) A Passion for Order. National Geographic Magazine June 2007.
    • Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus was an early information architect. He believed that every kind of plant and animal on Earth should be named and classified.</li>
  4. ↑ <u>Note: Linnaeus gave us the name Homo sapiens.
  5. ↑ [http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/life/1_0.html Why is Linnaeus world-famous?
  6. ↑ (2004). A Test Case for DNA Barcodes to Identify Species. PLoS Biology Vol. 2, No. 10, e357 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020357
  7. ↑ Darwin CR. (1859) On The Origin Of Species By Means Of Natural Selection, Or The Preservation Of Favoured Races In The Struggle For Life. (p148) London: John Murray, Albemarle Street.
  8. ↑ Darwin CR. (1859) On The Origin Of Species By Means Of Natural Selection, Or The Preservation Of Favoured Races In The Struggle For Life. (p430) London: John Murray, Albemarle Street.
  9. ↑ Chadwick D., Goode J. (2002) Endocrine Facets of Ageing. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471486361, ISBN 9780471486367.
    • ”Social and medical developments have recently led to a dramatic increase in life expectancy. This has inspired the study of organismic changes associated with healthy ageing, in particular the erosion of homeostatic capabilities in multiple endocrine systems. This book reviews advances in the understanding of endocrine facets of ageing. It considers the relative magnitudes and time courses of different endocrine adaptations in the ageing human and experimental animal, addressing the influence of external factors on the rates of progression of endocrine sequelae in ageing, the mechanisms that underlie the disarray of endocrine axes in ageing, and the implications of therapeutic reconstitution of hormones in ageing. This book: Considers the mechanisms of ageing and hormonal changes that occur with age. Discusses healthy ageing and the relationships between hormonal changes and pathophysiological conditions such as atherosclerosis and age-related bone loss. Draws together contributions from basic and clinical research, to identify and stimulate promising new research directions.”
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