English phonemes

The sounds and their spellings
A phoneme is a distinct unit of sound; spellings are ways of writing these sounds. English phonemes have different spellings depending on a word's provenance and history. This is a list of the phonemes, with their International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols, and all their spellings.

The pronunciations are those of the language's two main varieties: American English (AmE), where r is pronounced before a consonant, and British English (BrE), where it is not.

The áccents on bold example words indicate stressed vowels and their pronunciation. An equals sign shows homophones, with words in italics suggesting meaning: sêen saw = scêne scenic, drama, crime. The bullet (●) represents any consonant. An asterisk before a word indicates that it is a respelling to show pronunciation, and thus wrongly (*róngly) spelt.

IPA /i:/ ê êa êe  ê●e  êi  ìê  aê  oê  ì  ỳ  êỳ  êo
ê: bê, mê,  récipê,  catástrophê,  Penélopê,  Lêthê,  hypërbolê,  mêthane,  sêrum, 	dêvious,  mêdia,  rêtail,  dêmon,  Êly,  mêtre BrE distance, poem

êa:	sêa water, lêave,  hêat,  sêat,  bêat hit,  '''nêat,  êasy,  mêal,  drêam,  têam,  hêath

êe:	sêe vision frêe,  trêe,  fêel,  whêel,  grêed,  fêed,  spêed,  bêet sugar  '''êel,  rêel

ê●e:	Pêter, scêne,  êven,  fêver,  mêter all AmE, BrE machine only   '''complête,  compête

êi: 	after c: percêive,  recêive,  recêipt (-êit),  concêit,  concêive,  cêiling; after w:  wêird,  wêir  (but: wìêld); '''sêize,  Shêila,  Nêil,  Nêill,  O´Nêill

ìê:	before v: '''belìêve,  relìêve,  grìêve

aê:	 stressed, from Greek (BrE; AmE has ê alone): Aêschylus,  encyclopaêdia; unstressed in Latin plurals: nébulae,  nôvae,  fŏrmulae oê:	BrE (AmE has ê alone) from Greek: Oêdipus, amoêba,  foêtus,  oêstrogen,  oenólogy,  subpoêna

ì:	from French: '''machìne,  Christìne,  magazìne,  nìche,  elìte

ỳ:	normally unstressed: fúnny,  sílly,  crâzy,  lâzy,  êasy,  wítty,  dextérity,  Yvétte,  Yvónne; stressed:   '''Lỳón,  Lỳse,  Mervỳna

êỳ:	unstressed: '''nôsey,  pôsey,  láckey,  jóckey,  balôney,  álley,  Hàrvey

êo:	'''pêople

IPA /ɪ/ '''í ý u  o  e  ’  eí  íe
í:	'''sít, fít,  sítter,  fítter,  fítting,  bít,  líd,  híd,  bíd,  stíll,  bíll = Bíll,  Wílliam,    fíll,  línt,  tínt,  wríst,  pín,  tílt,  míddle,  ínch,  fíg,  bíg

ý:	'''týpical, sýnthesis,  sýnagogue,  sýmptom,  cýst,  mýstic,  mýth,  trýst,  Dýlan

u:	'''business, busy

o:	'''women

e:	unstressed: '''Jôneses, Bíggses,  Báxes,  táxes,  cópses,  fléxes

’:	unstressed: '''Jônes’s,  Bíggs’s,  Báx’s eí:	unstressed -feít: '''còunterfeít,  fŏrfeít,  sürfeít

íe:	unstressed: '''pàrtíes,  fámilíes,  lórríes,  cárríes,  cárríed,  márríed,  pólicíes

IPA /e/ '''é éa ai  u
é:	béd, Néd,  wét,  sét,  pén,  hén,  méss,  dréss,  pép,  séven,  eléven,  Dévon,  	Édward,  Téd,  bréd breed,  '''cléver,  éver,  évery,  néver,  tén,  ténth,  dén,  crést

éa:	déath, bréath,  bréast,  déad,  héad,  bréad food,  '''héaven,  thréat,  thréaten

ai:	said (*séd)

u:	bury ground (= bérry fruit)

IPA /æ/ á
'''fát, cát,  sát,  mát,  Ánthony,  ánt,  bág,  dágger,  fán,  pán,  áttic,  spásm,  cáttle,  brásh,  ásh redundant i in: '''pláit

redundant e in Gáelic Scotland = Gállic France (cf. Gâelic Ireland)

This sound is never final.

American English uses a long version of á instead of BrE à, except in  fàther,  Coloràdo,  Chicàgo,  pajàmas (BrE pyjàmas)  càlm,  quàlm,  bàlm,  àlms  or when an r follows.

IPA /ɑ/ à àr àl ó
Words with à in both British and American English are:

à:	fàther, Chicàgo,  Coloràdo,  AmE pajàmas BrE pyjàmas, Tuvàlu and Baràck Obàma, where, however, some BrE speakers instead say bárrack army

al:	(silent l) '''càlm,  bàlm,  quàlm,  àlms

and whenever an r (always heard in AmE, silent final or before a consonant in BrE) follows:

àr:	màr= '''Màrr, bàr,  càr,  vàrnish,  pàrk,  màrvel,  stàr,  scàr,  bizàrre,  hàrm,  àrm,  fàr,  	càrt,  fàrmer,  scàr,  pàrt,  màrk,  stàrch,  pàrch,  màrch,  hàrd,  gàrden,  làrge

The following are pronounced à in southern BrE (most with á in northern BrE), a long á in AmE:

ā:	'''Irān, Irāq,  cān’t,  grānt,  āfter,  crāft,  lāugh,  grāph,  āunt,  dānce before s: '''pāst,  fāst,  cāstle,  māster,  clāss,  ghāstly,  nāsty,  grāss,  lāst,  plāster,  cāst,  pāss,  tāsk,  blāst,  āsk

before th: '''rāther,  pāth,  bāth,  rāther,  lāther āl: with	silent l: '''hālf,  cālf,  hālve

ó in AmE is pronounced à, as in the next section:

IPA /ɒ/ ó
BrE only: AmE replaces this sound with à.

(Thus AmE pronounces the first words of Lós Ángeles and Làs Vègas the same: this is confusing for BrE speakers, who are as likely to say Lás Vègas, like láss girl, or, perhaps more commonly, "Lós Vègas", like the BrE lóss lose.)

ó:	'''hót, gót,  spót,  bóther,  dóg,  dóll,  nót,  stóp,  lóst,  óften,  slób,  slóppy,  cróss,  nód,  ódd,  shóne,  óff,  tóffee

ough as -óff: '''cóugh, tróugh

a	after ẁ: '''ẁant,  ẁas,  ẁash,  ẁasp,  ẁarren,  ẁander,  ẁarrant

after ẁh: '''ẁhat

after sẁ: '''sẁap,  sẁan,  sẁab,  sẁamp after qù: '''qùantity,  qùantum,  qùad,  qùash,  sqùash,  sqùad,  sqùabble

IPA /ɔ/ å åw åu  åugh  ŏr  ŏre  ŏrps  ŏor  ŏa  ŏur  ŏugh
The r is silent in BrE before a consonant, but sounded in AmE.

å:	wåter, ålso

before lk: '''chålk, tålk,  stålk,  wålk,  bålk before ll: '''åll,  fåll,  tåll,  båll before lt: '''ålter,  fålter,  Wålter,  hålt,  althôugh

åw:	såw, see, tool, åwful,  bråwl,  cråwl,  fåwn colour, deer, grovel,  bråwn,  clåw, påw animal,  '''swårm,  wårm,  wårn,  wård,  jåw,  Shåw,  måw

åu:	cåuse påuse  fåult  exhåust  fåun god

åugh:	'''cåught tåught  åught  nåughty  Wåugh

ŏr:	ŏr either '''fŏr  nŏr  cóndŏr  fŏrt  pŏrt  sŏrt  shŏrt  whŏrl

ŏre:	ŏre metal  cŏre centre  gŏre  pŏre skin   scŏre  sŏre pain  bŏre tedium, hole  	ignŏre  deplŏre  restŏre  whŏre (h-)  mŏre extra

ŏrps: 	cŏrps army

ŏor:	dŏor pŏor broke, unfortunate  flŏor  bŏor rude  mŏor land

ŏa:	'''brŏad abrŏad ŏar:	'''ŏar boat bŏar animal  sŏar fly

ŏur:	'''fŏur pŏur  mŏurn  tŏurnament

ŏugh:	'''fŏught bŏught  sŏught  brŏught

IPA /ʊ/ ù oò oùl  où  o
BrE only: AmE replaces this sound with a stressed schwa, /ə/.

ù:	'''pùt fùll  pùsh  bùsh  bùll  pùll  cùshion

oò:	'''goòd woòd  soòt  foòt  woòl

oùl:	shoùld coùld  woùld

où:	'''poùffe

o:	'''woman wolf

IPA /(j)u:/ û ûe û●e  ûi  oû  oûgh  oô  eŵ  ŵ  o
The long û grapheme repesents two phonemes, /u:/ and /ju:/, with various distributions on either side of the Atlantic. For a full discussion of this, see the article on the letter U.

û:	'''gnû Stû  flû ill  gùrû  êmû  pûny  Mûnich  jûry  Trûdi  dûbious  rûling  mûtiny  nûtrient

ûe:	flûe chimney trûe  blûe colour glûe  cûe drama, billiards  queûe wait (*kyû)

û•e:	'''Jûne jûte  flûte  tûne  dûpe  Drûse  trûth  Rûth  fûneral ûi:	'''frûit jûice  slûice  crûise

oû:	groûp soûp  coûp hit

oûgh:	'''throûgh

oô:	shoô soôn  foôd  broôd  foôl  schoôl  toôl  moôn  troôp  loôp  droôp  loôse choôse  groôvy  loôt  toô also, much coô bird

eŵ:	neŵ neŵs  vieŵ  cheŵ  revieŵ  Jeŵ  bleŵ blow

ŵ:	unstressed in '''Rŵánda

ŵo: tŵo 2

o:	do who (*hû)  shoe  lose  move  prove  to particle

IPA /ʌ/ ú oú ò  òo
BrE only: in AmE, it is replaced by a stressed schwa, /ə/, while in uneducated speech in northern England, it is replaced by ù, /ʊ/.

ú:	nút cúp  slút  túck  spún  fún  dúst  rúst  búst  sún  múck  súck  dúck BrE '''cúrrent

oú:	 doúble troúble  soúthern; (-úff)  '''toúgh  enoúgh  roúgh

ò	after w: wònder  wòn    win BrE wòrry

before n: frònt  dòne  nòne  òne 1 (invisible w-: = wòn) before -ve: '''lòve  shòve  glòve dòve

before -ther: òther  anòther  mòther  bròther  smòther (cf. bóther) òo:	before d: '''flòod  blòod

IPA /ɜ:/ ër ëar ïr  ür  ÿr  ör  öur
As with the preceding, this sound does not exist in American English, being replaced by a stressed schwa, always with -r sounded; the r is silent in BrE and the schwa lengthened to /ɜ:/.

ër:	'''wëre përson  vërve  vërdant  sërvant  jërk  fërn  hërd  tërn bird

ëar:	'''hëard lëarn  yëarn  hëarse  rehëarse  ëarl  pëarl  dëarth

ïr:	'''fïrst bïrd  dïrt  gïrl  quïrk  ïrk  stïr  whïrr  dïrt  shïrt  skïrt  flïrt  cïrcus  	cïrcle  cïrcuit  bïrth  gïrth  fïrm  fïr

ür:	bürn türn round  absürd  chürch  Türk  fürtive  blürt  spürt  hürt  nürse AmE '''cürrent

ÿr:	'''mÿrtle mÿrrh  Bÿrd

ör:	only after w: wörk  wörse  wörst  wörm  wörd AmE '''wörry

öur:	in -jöurn- and cöurt-: '''jöurney  jöurnal  adjöurn  cöurteous  cöurtesy

IPA /ə/, the schwa sound
An example of schwa (*shwà) is the neutral grunt which begins the word abòut (*əbòut). A shorter version of /ɜ/, never stressed, it can be spelt a, e, o or, less often, u, with or without a following r (which is silent in BrE if not followed by another vowel). It also appears as y in Béryl, Síbyl and síbyllîne - and it can be invisible before r and l.

First syllable: agô  ahéad  abòut  again (-é-)  abòve  upón and in names beginning Mac- such as MacNêill - or McNêill (invisible version)

Second syllable: ígnorance  pébble  doùble  Chîna  sêater  víctor  bürsar  quérulous  lêmur  fêmur      vísion  nâtion (-sion and -tion always have schwa)  Cânaan (double a) dógs’re (informal use of apostrophe)

Third syllable: '''ígnorance  decîder  Éxeter  Pámela  precürsor  exémplar  ridículous invâsion

Fourth syllable: '''América  Tanzanìa  exécutor  cálculator  álligator  unbelìêver  abnegâtion

Fifth syllable: '''preváricator  prevaricâtion  extërminator

Invisible before liquid sounds r and l: cãre (which rhymes with prâyer)  lãir (which is a one-syllable version of lâyer)  ŏil (which rhymes with lŏyal)  whîle  (*wîyəl)  fâil (*fâyəl)  sêal (*sêeyəl)  knêel down = Nêil, Nêill names (*nêeyəl)

IPA /eɪ/ â âi ây  â●e  âe  âigh  âu  eâ  èy  èi  èigh  è●e
In Yorkshire dialect this is pronounced as a pure /e/.

â:	grâvy pâcy  grâcious  nâval navy  nâvy  ânal  zâny  stâble  crâving  bâgel potâto  râzor  BrE vâpour AmE '''vâpor

â●e:	sâme gâme  câme  sâve  bâse  trâce  pâce  crâve  lâser  hâver râve  nâvel stomach  	Jâmes  hâzel  pâge  nâme  tâme  fâme  flâme hâte  gâte  fâte  lâte  wâde 	câve  brâve  stâge  grâde  phâse time, moon = fâze confuse  jâde  fâde  brâke speed  	lâne road  bâne  mâne horse  gâte open  hâte ''loathe âi before l: '''nâil  âil  quâil  fâil  wâil  tâil  tâilor  Tâylor before n: pâin  stâin  grâin  trâin  brâin  drâin  lâin lie  detâin  retâin  remâin  Câin  mâin chief  '''Mâine before m: âim  clâim  mâim  clâim âid  mâid  râid  wâif  mâize  Crâig  Hâig  Hâigh (= Hâgue)  gâit walk '''trâit trâitor

ây	final: dây sây  plây  jây  delây  wây  trây  brây  hây  prây prayer slây ''kill

before -er: lâyer slâyer (but not prãyer)

âe:	Gâelic Ireland '''Ísrâel  mâelstrom  phâeton

âigh:	strâight Hâight Ashbury

âu:	'''gâuge

eâ:	greât breâk ''pieces, off

èy:	thèy grèy  Lèyton  whèy  fèy  prèy ''on

èi:	vèin vèil  bèige rèin ''ride

èigh	final: invèigh  nèigh  slèigh ''snow

before t: '''wèight  frèight  èight

è●e:	'''crèpe

IPA /əʊ/ ô ôa ôe  ô•e  ôu  ôugh  ôw  ew
In Yorkshire dialect this is pronounced as a pure /o/.

ô with Latin-style suffixes:	   hôkum  fôcus  	hôcus-pôcus plus y, etc.: pôny  hôly Tôny dôzy  rôly-pôly nôsey  bôgey  phôney (or phony) Jôdie  Jôni   BrE côsy AmE '''côzy

final: sô therefore  nô not  gô  frô  lô behold  cô- before -ld: '''ôld  côld  gôld  hôld  sôld also: grôss pôll ''vote

ôh: ôh dôh sôh music

ôa: before t: '''gôat  côat  ôat  stôat  bôat  flôat before k: '''clôak  ôak before d: '''gôad  tôad  rôad before f: '''ôaf  lôaf before m: rôam wander (= Rôme) '''glôam

ôe	final: tôe  dôe  Côe  fôe  hôe  Jôe  Pôe  rôe  wôe  Defôe  flôe ''ice

ô●e:	hôme vôte  nôte  bôde  explôde  nôde tône  lône  cône  pôle wood  jôke  dôze  Rôme city  rôte routine = wrôte write  '''nôse  expôse  	brôke  spôke  brôken  spôken  tôken plus r: '''ôver  Dôver  clôver  grôcer oû:	'''sôul

oûgh:	dôugh bread '''althôugh  thôugh

ôw:	sôw seed knôw knowledge slôw  grôw  bestôw  flôw water  Ôwen  môw  lôw down  '''crôw  thrôw  glôw

ew:	sew ''needle

IPA /aɪ/ î  îe  î●e  îgh  îg  ŷ  ŷ●e  ŷe  eî
î: Î me hî greeting  '''crîsis  Îsis  Chrîst  fîery  wîry  shîny  tîny  lîme  sublîme unstressed: '''álibî  nûclêî  fránchîse  mërchandîse

îe	final: vîe  lîe  dîe dead  '''tîe

î●e:	îce nîce  tîme  fîne  lîne  slîme  twîce  lîce  rîpe  swîpe  smîle  stîle field îgh:	final: hîgh up  '''sîgh  nîgh before t: '''tîght  frîght  brîght  nîght  plîght  sîght îg	before n: '''sîgn  resîgn  desîgn

aî in place names: '''Caîro Thaîland  Dubaî  Sînaî

ŷ:	flŷ bŷ  whŷ  trŷ  rhŷme  spŷ  drŷ  sprŷ  relŷ  denŷ  defŷ  stŷ pig, eye

from -îe before -íng: vŷing  lŷing  dŷing  tŷing  (from  vîe  lîe  dîe  tîe, cf. trŷing  crŷing)

ŷ●ê:	tŷpe stŷle ''mode

ŷe:	stŷe eye eŷe sight  aŷe yes  dŷe ''colour

eî:	heîght Fáhrenheît  seîsmic  O’Reîlly  feîsty  BrE eîther  BrE neîther

IPA /aʊ/ òu òugh òw àù ào
òu:	òut fòul bad  blòuse  tròusers  clòud  thòu  clòut  pròud  wòund wind  gròund  	mòunt  mòuntain  jòust  fòund  dòubt (*dòut) lòuse ''insect

òugh	final: bòugh tree  slòugh swamp = Slòugh town  BrE plòugh

òw	final: hòw  nòw  còw  vòw  wòw  bòw down  sòw pig  AmE '''plòw before n: '''bròwn  tòwn  dòwn  fròwn  cròwn  dròwn  renòwn before l: fòwl bird  '''òwl  tròwel

before y: '''dòwry Lòwry Bòwery fròwsty

àù, from German, etc.: '''àùtobàhn sàùerkràùt Sàùdi Bíssàù Nàssàù

ào from Chinese, etc.: Mào Tào Jào Làos country

IPA /ɔɪ/  ŏi  ŏy
ŏi	before n: '''jŏin  cŏin  rejŏin  lŏin before l: '''fŏil  bŏil  tŏil before ce: '''rejŏice  vŏice before st: '''clŏister  hŏist  jŏist before t: quŏits BrE gŏitre  AmE '''gŏiter

ŏy	final: '''bŏy jŏy  tŏy  deplŏy  Rŏy Trŏy  destrŏy before st: '''ŏyster lŏyal  rŏyal

IPA /ɪə(r)/ êar êer êre  ìêr  êir
êar:	êar hêar ear  nêar  têar cry  fêar  Pêarson  drêary  wêary  blêary

êer:	'''bêer quêer  vêer  lêer  venêer  êerie

êre:	hêre there mêre  revêre wê’re ''we are

ìêr:	tìêr seats '''frontìêr  piêrce

êir:	wêird wêir water

IPA /eə(r)/ ãre ãir ãyr  ãyer  éãr  ére
ãre:	fãre money, food spãre  shãre  pãre cut  bãre nude  cãre  wãres goods stãre ''look

ãr:	before y: '''wãry  vãry  scãry  Mãry

before i: '''vâriable  shãring

ãir:	final: ãir breathe  hãir  fãir reasonable, fun  lãir  stãir step  '''flãir before y: '''fãiry  hãiry

ãyr:	'''Ãyrshire

ãyer:	'''prãyer

éãr:	béãr animal, tolerate, carry téãr rip  wéãr clothes  péãr fruit

ére: whére place thére here  ére before

IPA /(j)ʊə(r)/ ûre ûr eûr  eŵr
This sound could just as well be shown as ùr, but the u is clearly cognate with other final-mute-e words such as Jûne.

ûre:	'''pûre cûre  abjûre  lûre

ûr: 	dûring dûrable  cûrable  pûrest  fûry  fûrious  jûror  jûry court  '''Ûrals  	Arctûrus  Epicûrus  	mûral

eûr:	'''neûron neurótic  Eûrope

eŵr:	Jeŵry Jew '''Neŵry

IPA /aɪə(r)/ îr îar îer îre ŷr  ŷre
îr:	'''fîry wîry  îrony  Mîra  Hîram choîr

îre:	'''fîre wîre  desîre  mîre  spîre  îre  irâte

îar: lîar lie '''brîar

îer: '''fîery

ŷr	before a: '''gŷrate  Mŷra  tŷrant before o: '''gŷroscope  pyromânia  pyrotéchnic  tŷro

ŷre:	lŷre music '''pŷre

IPA /p/ p pp
p:	'''píll, pùt,  pâper,  hôped,  cláp,  píp,  stóp,  úp,  soûp,  droôp,  wêep,  peêp,  híp

pp:	'''pépper, stópped,  hópped,  clápping,  rípper,  ápple,  rípple,  púppy,  cópper

IPA /b/ b bb
b:	'''bŏy, bâke,  bîcycle,  bâsin,  mób,  bàrber,  snób,  snúb,  húsband, róbin,  bíscuit,  bénd,  bāth,  ablâze,  âble,  troúble,  mâybe,  ôbôe

bb:	'''rúbber, ríbbon,  ábbey,  ébb,  róbber,  dúbbed,  rábbit,  Bóbby,  búbble

IPA /t/ t tt bt  pt  ed th
t:	'''tín, tén,  toô,  trâin,  tót,  trîte,  tríp,  tâste,  déft,  bít,  hát,  côat,  bôat,  àrt,  tàrt,  	flïrt,  átmosphere

tt:	'''bétter, létter,  cáttle,  báttle, bóttle,  ráttle,  bétting,  sétting,  kéttle,  néttle,  cátty,  bátty,  tátty,  Bétty,  pótty,  atténtion

ed, inflexion of past tense verbs after unvoiced consonants: '''āsked,  slípped,  hôped,  áxed, hélped,  chānced,  kícked,  stópped,  lócked,  cáshed,  míxed,  âped,  grôssed

bt:	'''dòubt, débt,  súbtle

pt:	'''recêipt, ptàrmigan,  Ptómely,  pterodáctyl

th:	Kathmandû, Ánthony (= Ántony, a less common variant, as in Màrk Ántony)

IPA /d/ d dd
d:	dím, dénse,  dîce,  dúll,  rêad, réad = réd,   nêed,  stéady,  réady,  héad,  Êden,  lâden,  rámmed, fílled (ed not 't' after voiced sound, compare above)

dd:	'''rúdder, ádder,  ládder,  rúdder,  kídding,  ríddance,  Éddie,  dóddle,  gíddy

IPA /k/ k ck c  cc  ch  cq  q  g  kk
k:	kíll, Kenneth,  boòk,  loòk,  dàrk,  mêek,  pêak,  àrk Noah,  '''ínk,  thínk,  ránk

ck, not initial:	báck, néck,  síck,  déck,  píck,  wíck,  wícked,  máckintosh,  féckless,  réckless, gécko,  décker bus = Décker person, tick ''correct

c before back vowels a, o and u (and also  in encephalîtis):	cát  animal, cán,  còme,  câter,  cút,  cárry,  cãre,  crâter,  crâne, curve, cómmon, cót, confûse, cóntrary, contémporary, and finally: àrc, plástic, tíc ''twitch

cc pronounced 'k' only: sóccer, accrûe,  occür,  áccolade, and pronounced 'ks':  '''áccident,  áccess,  accêde,  cóccyx

ch: '''láchrymose, chŏrd,  âche,  écho,  páchydërm

cq: '''acquîre, acquâint,  acquiésce

q: Sádiq, Táriq,  Qátar,  qát drug

qu sounding like 'kw': '''quêen,  requîre,  quîet,  quîte,  quést,  exquísite,  líquid qu as 'k' sound alone: líquor (*líkker),  unìque (-êek),  Jácqueline (*Jácklêen or  = Jácklín) g	(for some speakers): '''léngth

kk:	púkka, Dékker ''person

IPA /g/ g gg
g:	'''dóg, gún,  bíg,  ángle,  fínger,  dângle,  ôgle,  pâgan,  flágon,  drágon,  bôgus

gg:	'''égg, bígger,  nóggin,  dágger,  dígging,  flágging,  nágged,  bógged,  flógged

IPA /tʃ/ ch tch c
ch:	choôse, cheêse,  beêch tree = bêach sand,  '''chóp,  cheêr,  lúnch,  châse final after r: lürch,  përch,  àrch,  màrch = '''Màrch, besmïrch

tch:	ítch, ítchy,  fétch,  pátch,  ẁatch,  dítch,  wítch,  scótch,  kétchup,  nótch, and from Russian, etc.,  Pétrovi(t)ch, Mikhaîlovi(t)ch, and other patronymics

initial only in a few imported names: Tchaikóvsky, Tchicaî

c in -ic ending of names from Serbian, etc.: Ivanísevic, Ivánovic, Pílic, Káradjic, Milósevic

IPA /dʒ/ j dj g  dg  gg
j: Jâne, jélly,  Jáck,  jôke,  Jóhn,  Jônes,  Jím James,  '''jërsey,  jejeûne,  jàr,  ajàr,  jêep,  Jûlie,  Julŷ,  môjo,  cajôle,  rejéct,  jíngle,  jángle,  júngle, jîbe

dj:	'''adjúst, adjöurn,  ádjective,  ádjúnct, Djiboûti,  Abidján

g	before e: '''géntle,  âge,  râge,  gênius,  gërm,  Gërmany,  pígeon,  dúngeon,  	stürgeon,  Nigêria,  genétic,  géneral,  géntle,  págeant before i: '''gîant,  gínger,  giráffe,  gímcrack before y: gyrâte,  gŷroscope,  gým gymnasium,  '''gýpsum

dg	before e: '''brídge,  édge,  hédge,  bádger,  bádge,  búdge,  fúdge,  cúdgel,  dódge,  Hódges,  lódger,  fídget,  mídget,  dúdgeon,  búdgerigar before i: '''cádging  lódging  búdgie before y: '''pódgy  dódgy  édgy  púdgy

gg:	'''exággerate

di:	'''sôldier

du: ŏrdure

IPA /f/ f ff ph  gh  ft
f:	'''fêel, frŷ,  frêe,  fróg,  fâke,  fâith,  óften,  déaf,  fít,  íf,  fŏrce,  fåll

ff:	'''óff, éffort,  búffer,  óffal,  clíff,  stíff,  búff,  púff

ph:	'''Phílip, grāph,  phâse,  élephant,  philósopher,  hîeroglýph

gh:	after ou: '''toúgh,  enoúgh,  roúgh,  cóugh,  tróugh

ft:	'''óften, sóften

IPA /v/ v vv f  ph
v:	'''vieŵ,  véry,  vãry,  shâve,  háve,  drîve,  vâgue,  vôte,  vâcant,  vîolent,  	Stêven,  vāst,  vãrious,  avër,  còver,  hóver,  ôver,  léaven,  lêave,  wêave

vv: 	'''flívver, révved,  bóvver

f:	'''óf

ph:	'''Stêphen

IPA /θ/ unvoiced th
thíck thín  trûth  Rûth  rûthless  bréath  ûndernêath  thínk  píthy  ísthmus  bôth lôth or '''lôath  bréath  wrêath  déath

IPA /ð/ voiced th dh
th:	thén thére  thís  thát  thús  thôugh  thêrefore  òther  bròther  mòther  	wíth  brêathe  wrêathe  lôathe  clôthe  BrE eîther AmE êither wéather clouds = whéther if

dh:	'''Rìyadh

IPA /s/ s ss sc  st  c  ps
s:	sêe såw  sêen  sôap  séven  séptic  sêrial drama  sŏurce  spécial  ûse noun '''ûsage   āsk  flāsk  tāsk  bāsk  désk  whísk  dúsk

ss:	'''máss lóss  drôss  grôss  méssy  véssel  hássle  guéss  dréss  kíss  híss

sc	scêne scéptre  coalésce  acquiésce

st:	'''whístle lísten  grístle  mústn’t  hâsten  hústle  bústle  fāsten  cāstle

c	before front vowels: nîce  îce  fâce  cêreal breakfast  '''spâcy  lícit  âce

ps:	'''pseûd psychólogy  psŷche

IPA /z/ z zz s
z:	zoô zône  zíp  hâzel  prétzel  ôzone  ádze  dôze  AmE '''côzy râzor

zz:	'''búzz fízz  dázzle  púzzle  núzzle  jázz  whízz  búzzer

s:	ûse verb êasy  nôse  nâsal  lâser  BrE '''côsy  pôsy  pôse  lâser

IPA /ʃ/ sh ss sch  s  ch  ce  ci  ti  xi
sh:	'''shíp shóp  shoôt  shín  shîne  blúsh  mésh  dísh  ẁash  ásh  áshen  fáshion  shéd  shélter

ss:	before i: '''pássion  físsion  míssion before u: '''assůre préssure

sch:	'''schwà schnápps  schmåltz

s:	AmE sûre insûre  BrE sůre  insůre

Si from Welsh and Irish: Siàn Siobhăn *Shivăwn

Se from Irish: Seăn (= Shăwn, Shăun)

ch	from French: machìne  nîche  pastîche  BrE moustàche AmE mústáche 	gauche (ô)  brôchure  créche  panáche  Míchigan

ce:	'''ôcean crustâcean

ci:	'''spêcies spêcious  précious  vícious

ti:	'''fíction áction  nôtion  devôtion  môtion  lôtion  complêtion  fictítious

xi includes an initial 	'k' sound: nóxious (*nókshəss)  ánxious (*ánkshəss)

IPA /ʒ/ zh zu si  su  g
Th 'zh' sound, as spelt when romanising from Russian, etc., it is however, not normally spelt thus. In French it is common and rendered with a j:

j:       joie de vivre *zhwàdvìvrə le mot juste  *ləmô-zhûst

zh:	'''Brézhnev Solzhenýtzin Yoûzhny

zu:	'''ázure sêizure

si:	'''vísion télevision  cohêsion  lêsion  Âsian

su	in -sure: pléasure tréasure  AmE lêisure BrE '''léisure 	clôsure

g	from French: '''Nigér

IPA /h/  h  wh
h:	'''hélp hít  heáven  héll  hàrbour  hôme  hórror  hórrible  hôpe  ahéad  ahŏy  àhà  Mahôney  enhānce  Hárris  Hámpstead  háppen  hápless

wh:	who (*hû) '''whôle  whoôping-cóugh

IPA /m/ m mm mb  mn
m:	múch môst  Mîchael (*Mŷcle) émpty   mén  míx  glámour  	ámber  ámble  whím  dímple  crúmple  crúmble  húmble  ámber  	ámplify  woman (*wùmən)  women (*wímən)  '''mémory

mm:	'''hámmer dímmer  glímmer  jámming  swímming  swímmer  símmer  		púmmel  búmmer  súmmer

mb	final: thúmb  cômb  dúmb  lámb  clîmb  tomb (*toôm)  '''plúmb

mn	final: '''åutumn  hýmn  cólumn

IPA /n/ n nn kn pn
n: nô negative neŵ old nót negative  nîght day  nêed require néver  níl  énemy  ánt  nâtive  nôbody  nô-one  noôn  noôdle  nûisance nést nâve church

nn:	Ánn Ánne dínner  ínnings  pénny  ínner  púnning  wínner  fúnnel  túnnel

kn: knôw knowledge kneŵ know knót tie knîght chess, Sir knêad dough knêe knâve jack

pn:	'''pneumátic pneumônia

IPA /ŋ/ ng n
The ng sound is a restricted phoneme, meaning it cannot appear in certain places. It cannot begin a syllable (except in transcriptions of e.g. Vietnamese names) and so is not found initially, only medially and finally:

finally: thíng síng  sáng  súng  sínger  hánger coat  hángar plane  '''wíng  spríng  lóng

the g sound added afterwards: lónger (*lóng-ger) '''fínger  ánger  húnger  ángle  síngle  dángle  Bángra n before k: '''thínk  pínk  ínk  wínk  sínk  sánk  súnk  púnk  tánk  dánk  tánker  pínker  ánkle  wínkle  tínkle before c: '''úncle càrbuncle  ráncour  sánction  júnction before x: '''ánxious

IPA /l/ l ll
l:	lôw lót  lénd  fâil  pâil bucket  pâle pallid  Pôle Poland  = pôle wood  pál  	låw  lîght (*lîte)  léss  râil  râiling  âiling  tâilor = '''Tâylor  trâil

ll:	bùll bùlly  wåll  åll  téll  dóll  pôll election  séll buy = céll prison, biology  	'''wíll  wílling  hóller  tåller  álley  allót  álloy

IPA /r/ r rr rh  wr
r:	rêad réd colour  réad reading  réady  rót  rãre  rôads streets  '''rāther  rîce  ríddle  rôdeo  rôad  rêcent  ràther

rr:	árrow fúrrow  farràgo  sórrow  sórry  mérry  shérry  whérry  bérry  hérring  Mórris  érror  pórridge  Hárry  fürry  BrE wòrry  AmE '''wörry

rh:	rhŷme rhýthm  rhétoric  rhêsus  Rhôdes name, Greece  '''rhôdedéndron

wr:	wrîte wrén  wrêak  wrŏught  wrést fight  '''wréstle  wrínkle  awrŷ

AmE pronounces r before a consonant and finally in words like àrm, hürt and ŏrder; BrE does not.

Sometimes a phantom final 'r' can be heard between two vowels, one ending, the other beginning, a word: Índia(r)and Srì Lánka

IPA /j/ y
y:	'''yéllow yoúng  yét  yoûth  yôke ox  yôlk egg  låwyer  såwyer

invisible before û: '''ûse  tûne  beaûtiful  mûte  mûsic  cûte  cûticle  	ukelèlê

IPA /w/ w wh u  h
w:	wéll woòd  wísh  awây  wònder  wíll  wéather sunny  ẁant  ẁash  	aẁash  wâve  wãry  wòrry  (AmE wörry)  '''ẁaddle  ẁander  wónky

wh (pronounced 'hw' in AmE):	ẁhat whén  whére  whŷ  whénce  whéther if  '''whíp  whístle  whîte

u 	after q: '''quêen  quîte  quîet  quést  quáck  quíck  equéstrian  acquîre  	quâint  equíp  qùarry  qùadrupéd  qùantum  qùantity  qùality from Spanish: Nicarágua (-ágwa or -ágyûa)  iguàna  marijuàna (*mariyəwànə)

h	in two Hebraic names: '''Côhen  Ménuhin

ou from French, initial in	Ouagadoûgou (Wág-)

IPA /χ/ kh ch
distinguished by some speakers from /k/:

kh:	'''shèikh Khàlid  Khayyám

ch:	'''lóch Bàch  Búchan  Buchánan

IPA /ks/ x xc  ks  kes  cks  cs  ches  chs
The grapheme x combines the phonemes /k/ and /s/. This is /gz/ for some AmE speakers in some words, for example exáct. x:	'''láx tóxic  Níxon  wáx  wáxen  óx  óxen  píxie  táxi  bóx  bóxes  míx  séx  	áxle  Téxas  México  hôax  extrême  Tríxie  Díxie  fáx  máximum  Báxter

xc:	'''éxcellent excél  excépt  excéss

chs:	in names from German: Óchs (= óx)  '''Fùchs

Accidental in plurals:

ks:	'''bàrks loòks  hoòks  spoôks  tålks  wålks  boòks  sêeks  fôlksy

kes:	'''tâkes sâkes  bâkes  câkes  jôkes  lîkes  êkes  nûkes  blôkes

cks:	sócks pícks  trícks  pécks  knócks  búcks  tícks marks

cs:	àrcs tícs nervous

ches:	'''âches héadaches

Other double consonants, such as ts and ps, which are phonemes in some languages, also occur accidentally, as in géts and cŏrpse.