Apostrophe

The apostrophe is used in many languages. Its chief purpose is to indicate a missing letter. So, for example, in French, "l'armoire" means "the wardrobe", and is composed of "armoire" preceded by "la", which drops the "a" before another vowel: the apostrophe is there to acknowledge this.

Several languages use the apostrophe as a diacritic.

Use in English
In English the apostrophe, though it looks like a punctuation mark, behaves like a letter, and omitting it is just as wrong as omitting a letter (unlike the hyphen, where there is some leeway), though it is conveniently expendable when writing informal notes to or for oneself. It has three pronunciations, I|í, schwa, and a glottal stop, but, also like many letters, it is frequently silent - and it is the silent apostrophe that causes most of the problems. On blogs, no matter what the general standard of literacy, one can see apostrophes wrongly inserted in plurals ("plural's") and many examples of ít's where there should be íts. (The accents show stress and pronunciation, see English phonemes.) Throughout the world there exist notices in which the writer shows off his or her supposed familiarity with English by inserting an apostrophe into an ordinary plural, as for example: LOT’S OF BARGAIN’S! which should read simply: LOTS OF BARGAINS! And that includes English-speaking countries: Lynne Truss calls them, with reason, "greengrocers' apostrophes".

Conversely, apostrophes are often omitted, especially among capitals and in titles, presumably for aesthetic reasons: THE RAKES PROGRESS (The Râke's Prôgress), CHAMPIONS LEAGUE (Chámpions' Lêague - or perhaps Chámpions is here an adjective), TEACHERS COLLEGE (Têacher[']s Cóllege, showing the same ambiguity), BITCHES BREW (Bítches' Breŵ: singular would be Bítch’s Breŵ – Miles Davis presumably did not intend a statement about the brewing habits of bitches). It is hard not to sympathise with periodic calls for the apostrophes abolition: as exemplified in this sentence, omitting it reads easily enough.

Pronunciation
The apostrophe is often pronounced like í in ís (though all of the following are schwa in Australasian English): in possessive nouns after -s, -x, -z, -ce, -se, -ch, and -sh: Jônes’s càr, Méndez’s hòuse, Báz's machìne, St Jâmes's Pàrk (all -zíz), Rêese’s dóg, Bíx’s bánquet, the fóx’s tâil, Grêece’s nèighbours (all -síz), wítch’s breŵ (-chíz), Bùsh’s pólicies (-shíz).

And also in the contraction of ís after -s, -x, -z, -ce, -se, -ch, -sh: the fóx’s íll sounds like the fóx ís íll - though the former is almost as likely to have the schwa sound.

Some writers prefer to omit the possessive s: Jônes’ càr &c., but two s’s are heard (if not, that would be Jôan’s càr).

In róck’n’rôll, R'n'B, B'n'B, and similar one-word contractions with an abbreviated 'and', the first apostrophe is schwa and the second silent.

And the schwa sound begins -n’t (the contraction of nót) to form a set of single-word verb contractions: coùldn’t, dídn’t, hádn’t, ŏughtn’t, shoùldn’t, mústn’t, hásn’t - though the apostrophe, signalling the omitted ó of nót, must come after the n.

But where -n’t follows a vowel sound, there is no new syllable: dãren’t, wëren’t, cān’t, shān’t are all monosyllables.

It is also silent when it substitutes for the í in ís, and in the possessives, provided that the preceding letter is not -s, -x, -z, -ce, or -se: '''Pêter’s boòk. Pêter’s íll. The dóg’s ángry. The gòvernment’s crâzy'''.

There are more silent apostrophes in the very common contractions hê’s, Î’m, wê’re, thèy’d, yoû’ve, shê’ll, ít’s etc.

And it’s here, with ít’s, that we come to the most common apostrophe mistake of all, as found in "It wagged it’s tail". The correct version is apostropheless like the other possessives mŷ, òur, yŏur, hís (*hízz) and hër: The dóg wágged íts tâil. It’s a perfectly logical mistake, as noun possessives do have the apostrophe: Pêter shoòk Jâne’s hánd, and so does the pronoun òne’s: Ít géts ón òne’s (*wúnz) nërves. Computer spellcheckers cannot as yet detect and correct this error; but it remains that ít’s is only allowed for the contraction of ít ís.

The full declension of a noun ending in –y
pàrties = pàrty’s = pàrties’—they are identically pronounced.

In the gïrls’ boòks the possessive plural apostrophe is silent and final, after the plural s of gïrls.

Similarly: thê Émirates’ låws, hër bâbies’ náppies, the hŏrses’ mânes.

In the chíldren's boòks, chíldren is already plural, so its possessive form has an 's as if it were singular.

Expressions of time are treated as possessive plurals: a feŵ dâys' time, fîve hòurs' slêep.

whose possessive = who’s contraction: these are both *hoôz and so are commonly confused:

'''Whose boòk ís ít? I’m trŷing to fînd òut who’s tâken ít (who hás''').

Who’s còming? (Who ís?)

'''The përson whose mistâke ít ís ís nót ûsually the përson who’s môst bóthered by ít. The òne whose idêas are bést and who´s bést at presénting them ísn’t necessãrily the òne who´s gót the môst to gâin.

The apostrophe occurs initially in the archaic ’tís and ’tẁas (for ít ís and ít ẁas) and to indicate dropped 'h': ’Ê tôld mê ’ê’d bŏught an ’ŏrse for Hê tôld mê hê’d bŏught a hŏrse.

Another silent apostrophe appears in the plural of initials and letters of the alphabet: CD’s (*sêedêez), a lánguage fùll of z’s.

A similar usage with numbers, as in the 1980’s, might be regarded as pedantic, as it seems to suggest we might confuse letters and numbers: 1980s is becoming more common.

Ô and a silent apostrophe begin many Irish surnames: O´Súllivan, O’Cónnor, O’Dónnell, O’Lêary, O’Toôle, O’Nêill, O’Reîlly, O’Gŏrman. There is no space after the apostrophe. (These spellings are English: the Irish language itself omits the apostrophe, uses a space and spells many of the names wildly differently.) In thrêe o’clóck, however, the first o is a schwa.

The apostrophe can also occur in words from Arabic and Hebrew, between vowels, where it is (in English more in theory than in practice) a glottal stop, such as Bà’ath party (usually = bàth water), in the name of the newspaper Ha’arétz, and in Qur’àn, which some prefer to the traditional Koràn. But what is the point in putting an apostrophe in ál-Qà’êda if you are going to pronounce it *ál-Qŷda?

And Hallowêen is best left without an apostrophe between the e’s.

But apostrophes are useful for shortening words in captions, as with gòv’t for gòvernment.

In Breton
In Breton, the apostrophe serves as a diacritic by distinguishing the graphemes c’h (pronounced [x]) and ch (pronounced [ʃ]).

As an accent in Italian
In Italian, a final apostrophe is sometimes used instead of a final upper-case accent. This is a nonstandard use, typically found in signs and notices:
 * POSSIBILITÀ (“possibility”) rendered as POSSIBILITA’
 * È FACILE (“it's easy”) as E’ FACILE
 * MONDOVÌ (Piedmontese town) signposted as ''MONDOVI’

Appearance of apostrophe and inverted commas
The apostrophe, in fonts where it is not vertical, always bends like a reversed 'c'. Its opposite, the mark which bends in the same direction as a 'c', can only be used as an opening inverted comma, while the closing inverted comma looks exactly like an apostrophe; there can be no confusion, however, because the inverted comma, being a true punctuation mark, can never be followed immediately by a letter. Inverted commas (which have the same tendency to be used superfluously around notices) can be single (‘…’) or double (“…”) and are used to open (‘) or close (’) direct speech: “Examinâtions”, obsërved Óscar, “are quéstions àsked bŷ the foôlish whích the wîse cánnot ànswer”.