Adsorbent chemistries

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Biomolecules and proteins in particular can adsorb to a range of solid phases in a selective manner that allows for differential elution and purification. Adsorbents that have been successfully used in the purification of biomolecules include hydrophobic adsorbents, ion exchangers and affinity adsorbents.

Principles
Hydrophobic interaction chromatography is a process that separates molecules based on their hydrophobicity, and is typically used as an intermediate step in the purification of proteins. The hydrophobic groups on the surface of molecules will tend to associate with hydrophobic groups on the surface of an insoluble matrix. The strength of interaction between the solute molecule and the matrix is related to its ionic strength and to the ability of the salt ions to alter the orientation of water molecules in the solution. Kosmotropic salts (which contribute to stability) promote hydrophobic interactions, while chaotropic salts (which interfere with stability) decrease hydrophobic interactions. Matrices of different binding strengths can be chosen based on the hydrophobic ligands on the surface. Strong hydrophobic matrices will typically have phenyl or octyl groups, and weak hydrophobic matrices will have ether or isopropyl groups. Increasing temperature tends to strenthen hydrophobic interactions. Compounds that reduce the polarity of the solvent will decrease hydrophobic interactions.

Procedure
Most hydrophobic interaction chromatography experiments are performed in four main stages: equilibration, sample application and wash, elution, and regeneration.

(1)	Equilibration: The first step is the equilibration of the stationary phase to the desired start conditions, which is done by adding salt to the mobile phase and passing buffer through the column.

(2)	Sample application: The next step is sample application and wash. The goal is to bind the target molecule and wash away unbound material. Binding is promoted by moderately high salt concentrations. (3)	Elution: Molecules are released from the hydrophobic surface by a change in the buffer composition, typically by decreasing the salt concentration of the buffer. Other methods such as lowering the temperature, inclusion of organic solvents or addition of non-ionic detergents can be used to decrease hydrophobic interactions.

(4)	Regeneration: The final step removes all the remaining bound molecules, ensuring that the stationary phase is at full capacity for the next run.

Applications
Hydrophobic interaction chromatography can be used to separate proteins and peptides according to their hydrophobicity. The procedure is suited as an intermediate step in a multi-step purification process and is an ideal step after ion exchange chromatography. For example, glycoproteins with high carbon content, that often bind irreversibly to saccharide-based chromatographic media, can be purified by HIC resins. HIC can be used as an intermediate purification step to separate the correctly folded form of a growth factor, such as IGF-1, from a misfolded, yet stable form. HIC has also been shown to be successful in purifying DNA plasmids. The Toyopearl Hexyl-650C resin is effective in removing endotoxins with capacities exceeding 2 million EU/mL of resin, while effectively eliminating RNA and protein contaminants. Additionally, it is effective in separating the supercoiled and open circular forms of plasmid DNA.

Principles
Ion exchange chromatography is a process that separates molecules according to their net charge. Some molecules may have both anionic and cationic groups. An anion exchanger, which consists of a positively-charged resin, will bind a compound with an overall negative charge. Likewise, a cation exchanger, which consists of a negatively-charged resin, will bind a compound with an overall positive charge. The strength of adsorption is proportional to the net charge of the molecule. A suitable resin is chosen based on the charge and molecular weight of the target molecule or protein.

Figure 1: Illustration of an anion exchanger, consisting of a positively-charged resin, that binds to a compound with an overall negative charge. The counter ions, initially in equilibrium with the ion exchanger, are exchanged for the sample compound. Image taken from Prof. Hunter’s presentation on “Introduction to Chromatography”.

Procedure
Ion exchange can be carried out in either a column or by a batch procedure. Both methods are carried out in the same definite stages: equilibration of the ion exchanger, addition of sample substances, selective desorption, and regeneration. The ion exchanger is initially in equilibrium with its counter ions. When sample substances enter the ion exchanger bed, the counter ions are exchanged for the sample substances. A gradient of linearly increasing salt concentration is applied after absorption. During desorption, the substance is exchanged for gradient ions and is eluted from the ion exchanger. In the final step, the gradient ions are exchanged for counter ions, thus regenerating the ion exchanger for further use.

There are two methods of desorbing molecules from the ion exchanger:

(1)	Varying pH levels: Changing the pH can reduce the net charges of sample molecules and matrix ligands, thereby influencing selectivity.

(2)	Adding a competing ion: The addition of a competing ion blocks the charges on the ion exchanger and desorbs molecules in order of increasing net charges.

Neutral salts such as sodium chloride are often used as the desorbing agent because they have little effect on the running pH.

Ion exchange matrices can be categorized as being either strong or weak. Strong ion exchange matrices are ionized across a wide range of pH levels, while weak ion exchange matrices are ionized within a narrow range of pH levels. The four most common ion exchangers are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Four common ion exchange chemistries

Type of ion exchanger	Common Abbreviation	Functional Group	pH range for + charge	pH range for – charge Strong Anion	Q	Quarternary Ammonium	All 	None Weak Anion	DEAE	Diethylaminoethyl	≤ 8.5	None Strong Cation	S	Sulfonic Acid	None	> 4 Weak Cation	CM	Carboxymethyl	None	All

(Insert image of ion exchange chemistries.)

Principles
Affinity chromatography is a method of separating mixtures based on highly specific biological interactions. Examples of such interactions can be found in enzyme and substrate or receptor and ligand. During affinity purification, the molecule becomes trapped on the stationary phase, typically a gel matrix. The other molecules, which do not possess the defined property, move freely through the column. The solid phase is removed from the mixture and washed (only in batch, not in column, see lect. 1-2); the target molecule is subsequently released via elution.

Adsorbent requirements
The adsorbents used consist of a matrix to which a ligand with high affinity for the molecules to be separated is reacted with the activated matrix or with a spacer arm attached to the matrix. Agarose beads and cross-linked agarose beads are typical solid packing used as matrices in affinity chromatography. The main requirements for a successful affinity adsorbent are as follows:

(1)	The matrix-ligand binding must not affect the ligand’s binding to the target molecule.

(2)	A spacer arm separating the ligand from the matrix should be utilized, especially if the ligand is small.

(3)	Non-specific interactions should be minimized.

(4)	A stable linkage of the ligand to the matrix is needed to ensure proper operation and clean-up for re-use.

Applications
A common use of affinity chromatography is for the purification of recombinant proteins. The molecule of interest in solution will have a defined property that can be exploited during the process. For example, there are antibodies in a blood serum sample that are specific for a particular antigenic determinant, which can be isolated through affinity chromatography. The following are steps taken to isolate antibodies in a serum sample using affinity chromatography:

(1)	An immunoadsorbent consisting of a solid matrix to which the antigen is coupled to is prepared.

(2)	Pass the serum over the adsorbent. Antibodies in the mixture specific for the antigen will bind and be retained, while antibodies of other specificities and proteins will pass freely through the column.

(3)	A reagent is used to release the antibodies from the immunoadsorbent. Denaturing agents like urea can be used to alter the configuration of the antigen-binding site and break its interaction with the antibody molecule. Buffers with high salt concentration or low pH can disrupt the non-covalent interactions between antibodies and antigen.

(4)	The solution obtained by elution is dialyzed against buffered saline to remove the elution reagent.

Principles
Size exclusion chromatography is a process that separates molecules according to their size. This can be done using resins or membranes. With membranes, the smaller molecules pass through the membrane while larger molecules are held back. Using resins, the larger molecules pass through the column while smaller molecules, which are trapped in the pores of the resin, take longer to flow through. There is no binding between the solid phase and solute molecules. The solid phase is composed of a gel with calibrated pores; the solids separate by diffusing in and out of these pores.

Procedure
The following steps are performed during the operation of size exclusion chromatography:

(1)	Gel is poured into the column, and a buffer is run through it to equilibrate the gel and buffer.

(2)	The sample with possible marker solute molecules is applied in the same or similar buffer.

(3)	The column is eluted with the same or similar buffer.

(4)	After fractions are collected, the nonspecifically bound solute molecules are flushed out.

(5)	The column is re-equilibrated for the next run.

Applications
An aqueous solution is typically used to transport the sample through the column, a technique known as gel-filtration chromatography rather than gel permeation chromatography, which utilizes an organic solvent instead as its mobile phase. Gel-filtration chromatography is used mainly in the fractionation of proteins and water-soluble polymers, while gel-permeation chromatography can be used to determine the molecular weights of organic-soluble polymers. (Rearrange)

Size exclusion chromatography is a popular method of characterizing biological polymers, such as proteins and nucleic acids, because it is able to provide good molecular weight results for polymers. For low pressure operation, a gel medium such as polyacrylamide, dextran or agarose is typically used, while the stationary phase is usually silica or cross-linked polystyrene medium for high pressure operation.