English phonemes

The sounds and their spellings
A phoneme is a distinct unit of sound; spellings are ways of writing these sounds. English phonemes have different spellings depending on a word's provenance and history. This is a list of the phonemes, with their International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols, and all their spellings (graphemes).

In all cases, a number of example words are shown; where those examples are few, it is because the spelling is rare and they are the only ones.

The pronunciations are those of the language's two main varieties: American English (AmE), where r is pronounced before a consonant, and British English (BrE), where it is not.

The áccents on bold example words indicate stressed vowels and their pronunciation. An equals sign shows homophones, with words in italics suggesting meaning: sêen saw = scêne scenic, drama, crime. The bullet (●) represents any consonant. An asterisk before a word indicates that it is a respelling to show pronunciation, and thus wrongly (*róngly) spelt.

IPA /i:/ ê, êa, êe,  ê●e,  êi,  ìê,  aê,  oê,  ì,  ỳ,  êỳ,  êo
ê: bê, mê,  récipê,  catástrophê,  Penélopê,  Lêthê,  hypërbolê,  mêthane,  sêrum, 	dêvious,  mêdia,  rêtail,  dêmon,  Êly,  mêtre BrE distance, poem

êa:	sêa water, lêave,  hêat,  sêat,  bêat hit,  '''nêat,  êasy,  mêal,  drêam,  têam,  hêath

êe:	sêe vision frêe,  trêe,  fêel,  whêel,  grêed,  fêed,  spêed,  bêet sugar  '''êel,  rêel

ê●e:	Pêter, scêne,  êven,  fêver,  mêter all AmE, BrE machine only   '''complête,  compête

êi: 	after c: percêive,  recêive,  recêipt (-êit),  concêit,  concêive,  cêiling; after w:  wêird,  wêir  (but: wìêld); '''sêize,  Shêila,  Nêil,  Nêill,  O´Nêill

ìê:	before v: '''belìêve,  relìêve,  grìêve

aê:	 stressed, from Greek (BrE; AmE has ê alone): Aêschylus,  encyclopaêdia; unstressed in Latin plurals: nébulae,  nôvae,  fŏrmulae oê:	BrE (AmE has ê alone) from Greek: Oêdipus, amoêba,  foêtus,  oêstrogen,  oenólogy,  subpoêna

ì:	from French: '''machìne,  Christìne,  magazìne,  nìche,  elìte

ỳ:	normally unstressed: fúnny,  sílly,  crâzy,  lâzy,  êasy,  wítty,  dextérity,  Yvétte,  Yvónne; stressed:   '''Lỳón,  Lỳse,  Mervỳna

êỳ:	unstressed: '''nôsey,  pôsey,  láckey,  jóckey,  balôney,  álley,  Hàrvey

êo:	'''pêople

IPA /ɪ/ '''í, ý, u,  o,  e,  ’,  eí,  íe
í:	'''sít, fít,  sítter,  fítter,  fítting,  bít,  líd,  híd,  bíd,  stíll,  bíll = Bíll,  Wílliam,    fíll,  línt,  tínt,  wríst,  pín,  tílt,  míddle,  ínch,  fíg,  bíg

ý:	'''týpical, sýnthesis,  sýnagogue,  sýmptom,  cýst,  mýstic,  mýth,  trýst,  Dýlan

u:	'''business, busy

o:	'''women

e:	unstressed: '''Jôneses, Bíggses,  Báxes,  táxes,  cópses,  fléxes

’:	unstressed: '''Jônes’s,  Bíggs’s,  Báx’s eí:	unstressed -feít: '''còunterfeít,  fŏrfeít,  sürfeít

íe:	unstressed: '''pàrtíes,  fámilíes,  lórríes,  cárríes,  cárríed,  márríed,  pólicíes

IPA /e/ '''é, éa, ai,  u
é:	béd, Néd,  wét,  sét,  pén,  hén,  méss,  dréss,  pép,  séven,  eléven,  Dévon,  	Édward,  Téd,  bréd breed,  '''cléver,  éver,  évery,  néver,  tén,  ténth,  dén,  crést

éa:	déath, bréath,  bréast,  déad,  héad,  bréad food,  '''héaven,  thréat,  thréaten

ai:	said (*séd)

u:	bury ground (= bérry fruit)

IPA /æ/ á
'''fát, cát,  sát,  mát,  Ánthony,  ánt,  bág,  dágger,  fán,  pán,  áttic,  spásm,  cáttle,  brásh,  ásh redundant i in: '''pláit

redundant e in Gáelic Scotland = Gállic France (cf. Gâelic Ireland)

This sound is never final.

American English uses a long version of á instead of BrE à, except in  fàther,  Coloràdo,  Chicàgo,  pajàmas (BrE pyjàmas)  càlm,  quàlm,  bàlm,  àlms  or when an r follows.

IPA /ɑ/ à, àr, àl, ó
Words with à in both British and American English are:

à:	fàther, Chicàgo,  Coloràdo,  AmE pajàmas BrE pyjàmas, Tuvàlu and Baràck Obàma, where, however, some BrE speakers instead say bárrack army

al:	(silent l) '''càlm,  bàlm,  quàlm,  àlms

and whenever an r (always heard in AmE, silent final or before a consonant in BrE) follows:

àr:	màr= '''Màrr, bàr,  càr,  vàrnish,  pàrk,  màrvel,  stàr,  scàr,  bizàrre,  hàrm,  àrm,  fàr,  	càrt,  fàrmer,  scàr,  pàrt,  màrk,  stàrch,  pàrch,  màrch,  hàrd,  gàrden,  làrge

The following are pronounced à in southern BrE (most with á in northern BrE), a long á in AmE:

ā:	'''Irān, Irāq,  cān’t,  grānt,  āfter,  crāft,  lāugh,  grāph,  āunt,  dānce before s: '''pāst,  fāst,  cāstle,  māster,  clāss,  ghāstly,  nāsty,  grāss,  lāst,  plāster,  cāst,  pāss,  tāsk,  blāst,  āsk

before th: '''rāther,  pāth,  bāth,  rāther,  lāther āl: with	silent l: '''hālf,  cālf,  hālve

ó in AmE is pronounced à, as in the next section:

IPA /ɒ/ ó
BrE only: AmE replaces this sound with à.

(Thus AmE pronounces the first words of Lós Ángeles and Làs Vègas the same: this is confusing for BrE speakers, who are as likely to say Lás Vègas, like láss girl, or, perhaps more commonly, "Lós Vègas", like the BrE lóss lose.)

ó:	'''hót, gót,  spót,  bóther,  dóg,  dóll,  nót,  stóp,  lóst,  óften,  slób,  slóppy,  cróss,  nód,  ódd,  shóne,  óff,  tóffee

ough as -óff: '''cóugh, tróugh

a	after ẁ: '''ẁant,  ẁas,  ẁash,  ẁasp,  ẁarren,  ẁander,  ẁarrant

after ẁh: '''ẁhat

after sẁ: '''sẁap,  sẁan,  sẁab,  sẁamp after qù: '''qùantity,  qùantum,  qùad,  qùash,  sqùash,  sqùad,  sqùabble

IPA /ɔ/ å, åw, åu,  åugh,  ŏr,  ŏre,  ŏrps,  ŏor,  ŏa,  ŏur,  ŏugh
The r is silent in BrE before a consonant, but sounded in AmE.

å:	wåter, ålso

before lk: '''chålk, tålk,  stålk,  wålk,  bålk before ll: '''åll,  fåll,  tåll,  båll before lt: '''ålter,  fålter,  Wålter,  hålt,  althôugh

åw:	såw, see, tool, åwful,  bråwl,  cråwl,  fåwn colour, deer, grovel,  bråwn,  clåw, påw animal,  '''swårm,  wårm,  wårn,  wård,  jåw,  Shåw,  måw

åu:	cåuse, påuse,  fåult,  exhåust,  fåun god

åugh:	'''cåught, tåught,  åught,  nåughty,  Wåugh

ŏr:	ŏr either, '''fŏr,  nŏr,  cóndŏr,  fŏrt,  pŏrt,  sŏrt,  shŏrt,  whŏrl

ŏre:	ŏre metal,  cŏre centre,  gŏre,  pŏre skin,   scŏre,  sŏre pain,  bŏre tedium, hole,  	ignŏre,  deplŏre,  restŏre,  whŏre (h-),  mŏre extra

ŏrps: 	cŏrps army

ŏor:	dŏor, pŏor broke, unfortunate,  flŏor,  bŏor rude,  mŏor land

ŏa:	'''brŏad, abrŏad ŏar:	ŏar boat, bŏar animal,  sŏar ''fly

ŏur:	'''fŏur, pŏur,  mŏurn,  tŏurnament

ŏugh:	'''fŏught, bŏught,  sŏught,  brŏught

IPA /ʊ/ ù, oò, oùl,  où,  o
BrE only: AmE replaces this sound with a stressed schwa, /ə/.

ù:	'''pùt, fùll,  pùsh,  bùsh,  bùll,  pùll,  cùshion

oò:	'''goòd, woòd,  soòt,  foòt,  woòl

oùl:	shoùld, coùld,  woùld

où:	'''poùffe

o:	'''woman, wolf

IPA /(j)u:/ û, ûe, û●e,  ûi,  oû,  oûgh,  oô,  eŵ,  ŵ,  o
The long û grapheme repesents two phonemes, /uː/ and /juː/, with various distributions on either side of the Atlantic. For a full discussion of this, see the article on the letter U.

û:	gnû, Stû,  flû ill,  '''gùrû,  êmû,  pûny,  Mûnich,  jûry,  Trûdi,  dûbious,  rûling,  mûtiny,  nûtrient, trûth,  Rûth

ûe:	flûe chimney, trûe,  blûe colour, glûe,  cûe drama, billiards =  queûe wait (*kyû)

û•e:	'''Jûne, jûte,  flûte,  tûne,  dûpe,  Drûse,  fûneral ûi:	'''frûit, jûice,  slûice,  crûise

oû:	groûp, soûp,  coûp hit (= coô)

oûgh:	'''throûgh

oô:	shoô, soôn,  foôd,  broôd,  foôl,  schoôl,  toôl,  moôn,  troôp,  loôp,  droôp,  loôse, choôse,  groôvy,  loôt,  toô also, much, coô bird

eŵ:	neŵ, neŵs,  vieŵ,  cheŵ,  revieŵ,  Jeŵ,  bleŵ blow

ŵ:	unstressed in '''Rŵánda

ŵo: tŵo 2

o:	do, who (*hû)  shoe,  lose,  move,  prove,  to particle

IPA /ʌ/ ú, oú, ò,  òo
BrE only: in AmE, it is replaced by a stressed schwa, /ə/, while in demotic speech in northern England, it is replaced by ù, /ʊ/.

ú:	nút, cúp,  slút,  túck,  spún,  fún,  dúst,  rúst,  búst,  sún,  múck,  súck,  dúck, BrE '''cúrrent

oú:	 doúble, troúble,  soúthern; (-úff:)  '''toúgh,  enoúgh,  roúgh

ò	after w: wònder,  wòn    win, BrE wòrry

before n: frònt,  dòne,  nòne,  òne 1 (invisible w-: = wòn) before -ve: '''lòve,  shòve,  glòve, dòve

before -ther: òther,  anòther,  mòther,  bròther,  smòther (cf. bóther) òo:	before d: '''flòod,  blòod

IPA /ɜ:/ ër, ëar, ïr,  ür,  ÿr,  ör,  öur
As with the preceding, this sound does not exist in American English, being replaced by a stressed schwa, always with -r sounded; the r is silent in BrE and the schwa lengthened to /ɜː/.

ër:	wëre, përson,  vërve,  vërdant,  sërvant,  jërk,  fërn,  hërd,  tërn ''bird

ëar:	'''hëard, lëarn,  yëarn,  hëarse,  rehëarse,  ëarl,  pëarl,  dëarth

ïr:	'''fïrst, bïrd,  dïrt,  gïrl,  quïrk,  ïrk,  stïr,  whïrr,  dïrt,  shïrt,  skïrt,  flïrt,  cïrcus,  	cïrcle,  cïrcuit,  bïrth,  gïrth,  fïrm,  fïr

ür:	bürn, türn round,  absürd,  chürch,  Türk,  fürtive,  blürt,  spürt,  hürt,  nürse, AmE cürrent (BrE cúrrent), '''cürtsey

ÿr:	'''mÿrtle, mÿrrh,  Bÿrd

ör:	only after w: wörk,  wörse,  wörst,  wörm,  wörd, AmE '''wörry

öur:	in -jöurn- and cöurt-: '''jöurney,  jöurnal,  adjöurn,  cöurteous,  cöurtesy

IPA /ə/, the schwa sound
An example of schwa (*shwà) is the neutral grunt which begins the word abòut (*əbòut). A shorter version of /ɜ/, never stressed, it can be spelt a, e, o or, less often, u, with or without a following r (which is silent in BrE if not followed by another vowel). It also appears as y in Béryl, Síbyl and síbyllîne - and it can be invisible before r and l.

First syllable: agô,  ahéad,  abòut,  again (-é-),  abòve,  upón and in names beginning Mac- such as MacNêill - or McNêill (invisible version)

Second syllable: ígnorance,  pébble,  doùble,  Chîna,  sêater,  víctor,  bürsar,  quérulous,  lêmur,  fêmur,      vísion,  nâtion (-sion and -tion always have schwa),  Cânaan (double a), dógs’re (informal use of apostrophe)

Third syllable: '''ígnorance,  decîder,  Éxeter,  Pámela,  precürsor,  exémplar,  ridículous, invâsion

Fourth syllable: '''América,  Tanzanìa,  exécutor,  cálculator,  álligator,  unbelìêver,  abnegâtion

Fifth syllable: '''preváricator,  prevaricâtion,  extërminator

Invisible before liquid sounds r and l: cãre (which rhymes with prâyer),  lãir (which is a one-syllable version of lâyer),  ŏil (which rhymes with lŏyal),  whîle  (*wîyəl),  fâil (*fâyəl),  sêal (*sêeyəl),  knêel down = Nêil, Nêill names (*nêeyəl), líttle (as -le), céntre (as -re, BrE, AmE -er)

IPA /eɪ/ â, âi, ây,  â●e,  âe,  âigh,  âu,  eâ,  èy,  èi,  èigh,  è●e
â:	grâvy, pâcy,  grâcious,  nâval, navy,  nâvy,  ânal,  zâny,  stâble,  crâving,  bâgel, potâto,  râzor  BrE vâpour AmE '''vâpor

â●e:	sâme, gâme,  câme,  sâve,  bâse,  trâce,  pâce,  crâve,  lâser,  hâver, râve,  nâvel stomach  	Jâmes,  hâzel,  pâge,  nâme,  tâme,  fâme,  flâme, hâte,  gâte,  fâte,  lâte,  wâde, 	câve,  brâve,  stâge,  grâde,  phâse time, moon = fâze confuse,  jâde,  fâde,  brâke speed, 	lâne road,  bâne,  mâne horse,  gâte open,  hâte, ''loathe âi before l: '''nâil  âil  quâil  fâil  wâil  tâil  tâilor  Tâylor before n: pâin  stâin  grâin  trâin  brâin  drâin  lâin lie  detâin  retâin  remâin  Câin  mâin chief  '''Mâine before m: âim  clâim  mâim  clâim âid  mâid  râid  wâif  mâize  Crâig  Hâig  Hâigh (= Hâgue)  gâit walk '''trâit trâitor

ây	final: dây sây  plây  jây  delây  wây  trây  brây  hây  prây prayer slây ''kill

before -er: lâyer slâyer (but not prãyer)

âe:	Gâelic Ireland '''Ísrâel  mâelstrom  phâeton

âigh:	strâight Hâight Ashbury

âu:	'''gâuge

eâ:	greât breâk ''pieces, off

èy:	thèy grèy  Lèyton  whèy  fèy  prèy ''on

èi:	vèin vèil  bèige rèin ''ride

èigh	final: invèigh  nèigh  slèigh ''snow

before t: '''wèight  frèight  èight

è●e:	'''crèpe

IPA /əʊ/ ô, ôa, ôe,  ô•e,  ôu,  ôugh,  ôw,  ew
ô with Latin-style suffixes:	   hôkum,  fôcus,  	hôcus-pôcus plus y, etc.: pôny,  hôly, Tôny, dôzy,  rôly-pôly, nôsey,  bôgey,  phôney (or phony), Jôdie,  Jôdy, Jôni, Jôannie, BrE côsy, AmE '''côzy

final: sô therefore,  nô not,  gô,  frô,  lô behold,  cô-

also: '''grôss, bôth

ôh: ôh, dôh, sôh music before l, -ld (can be /ɒʊ/): pôll vote, '''sôul,, ôld,  côld,  gôld,  hôld,  sôld

ôa before l: '''fôal, gôal

before t: '''gôat,  côat,  ôat,  stôat,  bôat,  flôat before k: '''clôak,  ôak before d: '''gôad,  tôad,  rôad before f: '''ôaf,  lôaf before m: rôam wander (= Rôme), '''glôam

ôe	final: tôe,  dôe,  Côe,  fôe,  hôe,  Jôe,  Pôe,  rôe,  wôe,  Defôe,  flôe ''ice

ô●e:	hôme, vôte,  nôte,  bôde,  explôde,  nôde, tône,  lône,  cône,  pôle wood,  jôke,  dôze,  Rôme city,  rôte routine = wrôte write,  '''nôse,  expôse,  	brôke,  spôke,  brôken,  spôken,  tôken plus -er: '''ôver,  Dôver,  clôver, Grôver, grôcer

plus -or:	'''rôtor, môtor, dônor

oûgh: dôugh bread, '''althôugh,  thôugh

ôw: sôw seed, knôw knowledge, slôw,  grôw,  bestôw,  flôw water,  Ôwen,  môw,  lôw down,  '''crôw,  thrôw,  glôw

ew:	sew ''needle

IPA /aɪ/ î,  îe,  î●e,  îgh,  îg,  ŷ,  ŷ●e,  ŷe,  eî
î: Î me, hî greeting,  '''crîsis,  Îsis,  Chrîst,  fîery,  wîry,  shîny,  tîny,  lîme,  sublîme unstressed: '''álibî,  nûclêî,  fránchîse,  mërchandîse

îe	final: vîe,  lîe,  dîe dead,  '''tîe

î●e:	îce, nîce,  tîme,  fîne,  lîne,  slîme,  twîce,  lîce,  rîpe,  swîpe,  smîle,  stîle field îgh:	final: hîgh up,  '''sîgh,  nîgh before t: '''tîght,  frîght,  brîght,  nîght,  plîght,  sîght îg	before n: '''sîgn,  resîgn,  desîgn

aî in place names: '''Caîro, Thaîland,  Dubaî,  Sînaî

ŷ:	flŷ, bŷ,  whŷ,  trŷ,  rhŷme,  spŷ,  drŷ,  sprŷ,  relŷ,  denŷ,  defŷ,  stŷ pig, eye

from -îe before -íng: vŷing,  lŷing,  dŷing,  tŷing  (from  vîe,  lîe,  dîe,  tîe, cf. trŷing,  crŷing)

ŷ●ê:	tŷpe, stŷle ''mode

ŷe:	stŷe eye, eŷe sight,  aŷe yes,  dŷe ''colour

eî:	heîght, Fáhrenheît,  seîsmic,  O’Reîlly,  feîsty,  BrE eîther,  BrE neîther

IPA /aʊ/ òu, òugh, òw, àù, ào
òu:	òut, fòul bad,  blòuse,  tròusers,  clòud,  thòu,  clòut,  pròud,  wòund wînd,  gròund,  	mòunt,  mòuntain,  jòust,  fòund,  dòubt (*dòut), lòuse ''insect

òugh	final: bòugh tree,  slòugh swamp = Slòugh town,  BrE plòugh

òw	final: hòw,  nòw,  còw,  vòw,  wòw,  bòw down,  sòw pig,  AmE '''plòw before n: '''bròwn,  tòwn,  dòwn,  fròwn,  cròwn,  dròwn,  renòwn before l: fòwl bird,  '''òwl,  tròwel

before y: '''dòwry, Lòwry, Bòwery, fròwsty

àù, from German, etc.: '''àùtobàhn, sàùerkràùt, Sàùdi, Bíssàù, Nàssàù

ào from Chinese, etc.: Mào, Tào, Jào, Làos country

IPA /ɔɪ/  ŏi  ŏy
ŏi	before n: '''jŏin,  cŏin,  rejŏin,  lŏin before l: '''fŏil,  bŏil,  tŏil

before ce: '''rejŏice,  vŏice before st: '''clŏister,  hŏist,  jŏist before t: quŏits, BrE gŏitre,  AmE '''gŏiter

ŏy	final: '''bŏy, jŏy,  tŏy,  deplŏy,  Rŏy, Trŏy,  destrŏy before st: '''ŏyster

before l: '''lŏyal, rŏyal

IPA /ɪə(r)/ êar, êer, êre,  ìêr,  êir
êar:	êar, hêar ear,  nêar,  têar cry,  fêar,  Pêarson,  drêary,  wêary,  blêary

êer:	'''bêer, quêer,  vêer,  lêer,  venêer,  êerie

êre:	hêre there, mêre,  revêre, wê’re ''we are

ìêr:	tìêr seats, '''frontìêr,  piêrce

êir:	wêird, wêir water

IPA /eə(r)/ ãre, ãir, ãyr,  ãyer,  éãr,  ére
ãre:	fãre money, food, spãre,  shãre,  pãre cut,  bãre nude,  cãre,  wãres goods, stãre ''look

ãr:	before y: '''wãry,  vãry,  scãry,  Mãry

before i: '''vâriable,  shãring

ãir:	final: ãir breathe,  hãir,  fãir reasonable, fun,  lãir,  stãir step,  '''flãir before y: '''fãiry,  hãiry

ãyr:	'''Ãyrshire

ãyer:	'''prãyer

éãr:	béãr animal, tolerate, carry, téãr rip,  wéãr clothes,  péãr fruit

ére: whére place, thére here,  ére before

IPA /(j)ʊə(r)/ ûre ûr eûr  eŵr
This sound could just as well be shown as ùr, but the u is clearly cognate with other final-mute-e words such as Jûne.

ûre:	'''pûre cûre  abjûre  lûre

ûr: 	dûring dûrable  cûrable  pûrest  fûry  fûrious  jûror  jûry court  '''Ûrals  	Arctûrus  Epicûrus  	mûral

eûr:	'''neûron neurótic  Eûrope

eŵr:	Jeŵry Jew '''Neŵry

IPA /aɪə(r)/ îr, îar, îer, îre, ŷr  ŷre
îr:	'''fîry, wîry,  îrony,  Mîra,  Hîram, choîr

îre:	'''fîre, wîre,  desîre,  mîre,  spîre,  îre,  irâte

îar: lîar lie, '''brîar

îer: '''fîery

ŷr	before a: '''gŷrate,  Mŷra,  tŷrant before o: '''gŷroscope,  pyromânia,  pyrotéchnic,  tŷro

ŷre:	lŷre music, '''pŷre

IPA /p/ p, pp
p:	'''píll, pùt,  pâper,  hôped,  cláp,  píp,  stóp,  úp,  soûp,  droôp,  wêep,  peêp,  híp

pp:	'''pépper, stópped,  hópped,  clápping,  rípper,  ápple,  rípple,  púppy,  cópper

IPA /b/ b, bb
b:	'''bŏy, bâke,  bîcycle,  bâsin,  mób,  bàrber,  snób,  snúb,  húsband, róbin,  bíscuit,  bénd,  bāth,  ablâze,  âble,  troúble,  mâybe,  ôbôe

bb:	'''rúbber, ríbbon,  ábbey,  ébb,  róbber,  dúbbed,  rábbit,  Bóbby,  búbble

IPA /t/ t, tt, bt,  pt,  ed, th
t:	'''tín, tén,  toô,  trâin,  tót,  trîte,  tríp,  tâste,  déft,  bít,  hát,  côat,  bôat,  àrt,  tàrt,  	flïrt,  átmosphere

tt:	'''bétter, létter,  cáttle,  báttle, bóttle,  ráttle,  bétting,  sétting,  kéttle,  néttle,  cátty,  bátty,  tátty,  Bétty,  pótty,  atténtion

ed, inflexion of past tense verbs after unvoiced consonants: '''āsked,  slípped,  hôped,  áxed, hélped,  chānced,  kícked,  stópped,  lócked,  cáshed,  míxed,  âped,  grôssed

bt:	'''dòubt, débt,  súbtle

pt:	'''recêipt, ptàrmigan,  Ptómely,  pterodáctyl

th:	Kathmandû, Ánthony (= Ántony, a less common variant, as in Màrk Ántony)

IPA /d/ d, dd
d:	dím, dénse,  dîce,  dúll,  rêad, réad = réd,   nêed,  stéady,  réady,  héad,  Êden,  lâden,  rámmed, fílled (ed not 't' after voiced sound, compare above)

dd:	'''rúdder, ádder,  ládder,  rúdder,  kídding,  ríddance,  Éddie,  dóddle,  gíddy

IPA /k/ k, ck, c,  cc,  ch,  cq,  q,  g,  kk
k:	kíll, Kenneth,  boòk,  loòk,  dàrk,  mêek,  pêak,  àrk Noah,  '''ínk,  thínk,  ránk

ck, not initial:	báck, néck,  síck,  déck,  píck,  wíck,  wícked,  máckintosh,  féckless,  réckless, gécko,  décker bus = Décker person, tick ''correct

c before back vowels a, o and u (and also  in encephalîtis):	cát  animal, cán,  còme,  câter,  cút,  cárry,  cãre,  crâter,  crâne, curve, cómmon, cót, confûse, cóntrary, contémporary, and finally: àrc, plástic, tíc ''twitch

cc pronounced 'k' only: sóccer, accrûe,  occür,  áccolade, and pronounced 'ks':  '''áccident,  áccess,  accêde,  cóccyx

ch: '''láchrymose, chŏrd,  âche,  écho,  páchydërm

cq: '''acquîre, acquâint,  acquiésce

q: Sádiq, Táriq,  Qátar,  qát drug

qu sounding like 'kw': '''quêen,  requîre,  quîet,  quîte,  quést,  exquísite,  líquid qu as 'k' sound alone: líquor (*líkker),  unìque (-êek),  Jácqueline (*Jácklêen or  = Jácklín) g	(for some speakers): '''léngth

kk:	púkka, Dékker ''person

IPA /g/ g, gg
g:	'''dóg, gún,  bíg,  ángle,  fínger,  dângle,  ôgle,  pâgan,  flágon,  drágon,  bôgus

gg:	'''égg, bígger,  nóggin,  dágger,  dígging,  flágging,  nágged,  bógged,  flógged

IPA /tʃ/ ch tch c
ch:	choôse, cheêse,  beêch tree = bêach sand,  '''chóp,  cheêr,  lúnch,  châse final after r: lürch,  përch,  àrch,  màrch = '''Màrch, besmïrch

tch:	ítch, ítchy,  fétch,  pátch,  ẁatch,  dítch,  wítch,  scótch,  kétchup,  nótch, and from Russian, etc.,  Pétrovi(t)ch, Mikhaîlovi(t)ch, and other patronymics

initial only in a few imported names: Tchaikóvsky, Tchicaî

c in -ic ending of names from Serbian, etc.: Ivanísevic, Ivánovic, Pílic, Káradjic, Milósevic

IPA /dʒ/ j dj g  dg  gg
j: Jâne, jélly,  Jáck,  jôke,  Jóhn,  Jônes,  Jím James,  '''jërsey,  jejeûne,  jàr,  ajàr,  jêep,  Jûlie,  Julŷ,  môjo,  cajôle,  rejéct,  jíngle,  jángle,  júngle, jîbe

dj:	'''adjúst, adjöurn,  ádjective,  ádjúnct, Djiboûti,  Abidján

g	before e: '''géntle,  âge,  râge,  gênius,  gërm,  Gërmany,  pígeon,  dúngeon,  	stürgeon,  Nigêria,  genétic,  géneral,  géntle,  págeant before i: '''gîant,  gínger,  giráffe,  gímcrack before y: gyrâte,  gŷroscope,  gým gymnasium,  '''gýpsum

dg	before e: '''brídge,  édge,  hédge,  bádger,  bádge,  búdge,  fúdge,  cúdgel,  dódge,  Hódges,  lódger,  fídget,  mídget,  dúdgeon,  búdgerigar before i: '''cádging  lódging  búdgie before y: '''pódgy  dódgy  édgy  púdgy

gg:	'''exággerate

di:	'''sôldier

du: ŏrdure

IPA /f/ f ff ph  gh  ft
f:	'''fêel, frŷ,  frêe,  fróg,  fâke,  fâith,  óften,  déaf,  fít,  íf,  fŏrce,  fåll

ff:	'''óff, éffort,  búffer,  óffal,  clíff,  stíff,  búff,  púff

ph:	'''Phílip, grāph,  phâse,  élephant,  philósopher,  hîeroglýph

gh:	after ou: '''toúgh,  enoúgh,  roúgh,  cóugh,  tróugh

ft:	'''óften, sóften

IPA /v/ v vv f  ph
v:	'''vieŵ,  véry,  vãry,  shâve,  háve,  drîve,  vâgue,  vôte,  vâcant,  vîolent,  	Stêven,  vāst,  vãrious,  avër,  còver,  hóver,  ôver,  léaven,  lêave,  wêave

vv: 	'''flívver, révved,  bóvver

f:	'''óf

ph:	'''Stêphen

IPA /θ/ unvoiced th
thíck, thín,  trûth,  Rûth,  rûthless,  bréath,  ûndernêath,  thínk,  píthy,  ísthmus,  bôth, lôth or lôath,  bréath,  wrêath,  déath, mòuth ''noun

IPA /ð/ voiced th dh
th:	thén, thére,  thís,  thát,  thús,  thôugh,  thêrefore,  òther,  bròther,  mòther,  	wíth,  brêathe,  wrêathe,  lôathe,  clôthe  BrE eîther AmE êither, wéather clouds = whéther if, mòuth ''verb

dh:	'''Rìyadh, édh

IPA /s/ s ss sc  st  c  ps
s:	sêe, såw,  sêen,  sôap,  séven,  séptic,  sêrial drama,  sŏurce,  spécial,  ûse noun, '''ûsage,   āsk,  flāsk,  tāsk,  bāsk,  désk,  whísk,  dúsk

ss:	'''máss, lóss,  drôss,  grôss,  méssy,  véssel,  hássle,  guéss,  dréss,  kíss,  híss

sc	scêne, scéptre,  coalésce,  acquiésce

st:	'''whístle, lísten,  grístle,  mústn’t,  hâsten,  hústle,  bústle,  fāsten,  cāstle

c	before front vowels: nîce,  îce,  fâce,  cêreal breakfast,  '''spâcy, lícit,  âce

ps:	'''pseûd, psychólogy,  psŷche

IPA /z/ z zz s
z:	zoô, zône,  zíp,  hâzel,  prétzel,  ôzone,  ádze,  dôze,  AmE '''côzy, râzor

zz:	'''búzz, fízz,  dázzle,  púzzle,  núzzle,  jázz,  whízz,  búzzer

s:	ûse verb, êasy,  nôse,  nâsal,  lâser,  BrE '''côsy,  pôsy,  pôse,  lâser

IPA /ʃ/ sh ss sch  s  ch  ce  ci  ti  xi
sh:	'''shíp, shóp,  shoôt,  shín,  shîne,  blúsh,  mésh,  dísh,  ẁash,  ásh,  áshen,  fáshion,  shéd,  shélter

ss:	before i: '''pássion,  físsion,  míssion before u: '''assůre, préssure

sch:	'''schwà, schnápps,  schmåltz

s:	AmE sûre, insûre,  BrE sůre,  insůre

Si from Welsh and Irish: Siàn, Siobhăn *Shivăwn

Se from Irish: Seăn (= Shăwn, Shăun)

ch	from French: machìne,  nîche,  pastîche,  BrE moustàche, AmE mústáche, 	gauche (ô),  brôchure,  créche,  panáche,  Míchigan

ce:	'''ôcean, crustâcean

ci:	'''spêcies, spêcious, précious,  vícious

ti:	'''fíction, áction,  nôtion,  devôtion,  môtion,  lôtion,  complêtion,  fictítious

xi includes an initial 	'k' sound: nóxious (*nókshəss),  ánxious (*ánkshəss)

IPA /ʒ/ zh zu si  su  g
Most conveniently descibed as the zh sound, as this spelling is used when romanising from Russian, etc.; it is however, not normally spelt thus, si being the most frequent spelling. In French the sound is common and rendered with a j:

j:       joie de vivre *zhwàdvìvrə, le mot juste  *ləmô-zhûst

zh:	'''Brézhnev, Solzhenýtzin, Yoûzhny

zu:	'''ázure, sêizure

si:	'''vísion, télevision,  cohêsion,  lêsion,  Âsian

su	in -sure: pléasure, tréasure,  AmE lêisure BrE '''léisure, 	clôsure

g	from French: '''Nigér

IPA /h/  h  wh
h:	'''hélp, hít,  heáven,  héll,  hàrbour,  hôme,  hórror,  hórrible,  hôpe,  ahéad,  ahŏy,  àhà,  Mahôney,  enhānce,  Hárris,  Hámpstead,  háppen,  hápless

wh:	who (*hû), '''whôle,  whoôping-cóugh

IPA /m/ m mm mb  mn
m:	múch, môst,  Mîchael (*Mŷcle), émpty,   mén,  míx,  glámour,  	ámber,  ámble,  whím,  dímple,  crúmple,  crúmble,  húmble,  ámber,  	ámplify,  woman (*wùmən),  women (*wímən),  '''mémory

mm:	'''hámmer, dímmer,  glímmer,  jámming,  swímming,  swímmer,  símmer,  		púmmel,  búmmer,  súmmer

mb	final: thúmb,  cômb,  dúmb,  lámb,  clîmb,  tomb (*toôm)  '''plúmb

mn	final: '''åutumn,  hýmn,  cólumn

IPA /n/ n nn kn pn
n: nô negative, neŵ old, nót negative,  nîght day,  nêed require, néver,  níl,  énemy,  sént,  nâtive,  nôbody,  nô-one,  noôn,  noôdle,  nûisance, nést, nâve church

nn:	Ánn, Ánne, dínner,  ínnings,  pénny,  ínner,  púnning,  wínner,  fúnnel,  túnnel

kn: knôw knowledge, kneŵ know, knót tie, knîght chess, Sir, knêad dough, knêe, knâve jack

pn:	'''pneumátic, pneumônia

IPA /ŋ/ ng n
A restricted phoneme, the ng sound cannot begin a syllable (except in transcriptions of e.g. Vietnamese names) and so is not found initially, only medially and finally:

finally: thíng, síng,  sáng,  súng,  sínger,  hánger coat,  hángar plane,  '''wíng,  spríng,  lóng

the g sound added afterwards: lónger (*lóng-ger), '''fínger,  ánger,  húnger,  ángle,  síngle,  dángle,  Bángra n before k: thínk,  pínk,  ínk,  wínk,  sínk,  sánk,  súnk,  púnk,  tánk,  dánk,  tánker,  pínker,  ánkle,  wínkle,  tínkle, línks ''link

before c: '''úncle, càrbuncle,  ráncour,  sánction,  júnction, zínc before x: ánxious (*ángshus or *ángkshus), mínx, jínx, lýnx ''cat

IPA /l/ l, ll
l:	lôw, lót,  lénd,  fâil,  pâil bucket,  pâle pallid,  Pôle Poland  = pôle wood,  pál,  	låw,  lîght (*lîte),  léss,  râil,  râiling,  âiling,  tâilor = '''Tâylor,  trâil

ll:	bùll, bùlly,  wåll,  åll,  téll,  dóll,  pôll election,  séll buy = céll prison, biology,  	'''wíll,  wílling,  hóller,  tåller,  álley,  allót,  álloy

IPA /r/ r, rr, rh,  wr
r:	rêad, réd colour,  réad reading,  réady,  rót,  rãre,  rôads streets,  rāther,  rîce,  ríddle,  AmE rôdeo, BrE''' rodèo,  rôad,  rêcent,  ràther

rr:	árrow, fúrrow,  farràgo,  sórrow, sórry,  mérry,  shérry,  whérry,  bérry,  hérring,  Mórris,  érror,  pórridge,  Hárry,  fürry,  BrE wòrry,  AmE '''wörry

rh:	rhŷme, rhýthm,  rhétoric,  rhêsus,  Rhôdes name, Greece,  '''rhôdedéndron

wr:	wrîte, wrén,  wrêak,  wrŏught,  wrést fight,  '''wréstle,  wrínkle,  awrŷ

AmE pronounces r before a consonant and finally in words like àrm, hürt and ŏrder; BrE does not.

Sometimes a phantom final 'r' can be heard between two vowels, one ending, the other beginning, a word: Índia(r)and Srì Lánka

IPA /j/ y
y:	yéllow, yoúng,  yét,  yoûth,  yôke ox,  yôlk egg,  '''låwyer,  såwyer

invisible before û: '''ûse,  tûne,  beaûtiful,  mûte,  mûsic,  cûte,  cûticle,  	ukelèlê

IPA /w/ w, wh, u,  h
w:	wéll, woòd,  wísh,  awây,  wònder,  wíll,  wéather sunny,  ẁant,  ẁash,  	aẁash,  wâve,  wãry, BrE  wòrry, AmE wörry,  '''ẁaddle,  ẁander,  wónky

wh (pronounced 'hw' in AmE):	ẁhat, whén,  whére,  whŷ,  whénce,  whéther if,  '''whíp,  whístle,  whîte

u 	after q: '''quêen,  quîte,  quîet,  quést,  quáck,  quíck,  equéstrian,  acquîre,  	quâint,  equíp,  qùarry,  qùadrupéd,  qùantum,  qùantity,  qùality from Spanish: Nicarágua (-ágwa or -ágyûa),  iguàna,  marijuàna (*mariyəwànə)

h	in two Hebraic names: '''Côhen,  Ménuhin

ou from French, initial in	Ouagadoûgou (Wág-)

IPA /χ/ kh, ch
distinguished by some speakers from /k/:

kh:	'''shèikh, Khàlid,  Khayyám

ch:	'''lóch, Bàch,  Búchan,  Buchánan

IPA /ks/ x, xc,  ks,  kes,  cks,  cs,  ches,  chs
The grapheme x combines the phonemes /k/ and /s/. This is /gz/ for some AmE speakers in some words, for example exáct. x:	láx, tóxic,  Níxon,  wáx,  wáxen,  óx,  óxen,  píxie,  táxi,  bóx,  bóxes,  míx,  séx,  	áxle,  Téxas,  México,  hôax,  extrême,  Tríxie,  Díxie,  fáx (= fácts, whence it is derived),  '''máximum,  Báxter

xc:	'''éxcellent, excél,  excépt,  excéss

chs:	in names from German: Óchs (= óx),  '''Fùchs

Accidental in plurals:

ks:	'''bàrks, loòks,  hoòks,  spoôks,  tålks,  wålks,  boòks,  sêeks,  fôlksy

kes:	'''tâkes, sâkes,  bâkes,  câkes,  jôkes,  lîkes,  êkes,  nûkes,  blôkes

cks:	sócks, pícks,  trícks,  pécks,  knócks,  búcks,  tícks marks

cs:	àrcs, tícs nervous, '''mathemátics, lûnatics, mâniacs, médics, geriátrics, pediátrics, holístics

ches:	'''âches, héadaches

Other double consonants, such as ts and ps, which are phonemes in some languages, also occur accidentally, as in géts and cŏrpse.