Economics

The term economics refers both to an intellectual discipline and to a profession. The intellectual discipline of economics is an attempt to gain an understanding of  the processes that govern the production, distribution  and consumption of wealth, and to use that understanding to assist in the prediction of the consequences of economic activities. It uses the methodology of science and can be considered to be a science insofar as it produces testable propositions (see economics as a science), although it is widely believed that the usual treatment of some branches of the subject should be regarded as normative (see normative economics). The profession of economics includes academics who construct, develop and teach economic theory, and practitioners use economic theory  to make forecasts or to advise upon political, commercial and regulatory decisions.

The main articles on economics are intended for use by non-economists, and there is supplementary material on the subpages to assist navigation and for use by students of economics.

The work of economists
The services provided by practitioners of economics include  economic forecasting,  advice to company executives concerning the consequences for sales and profits of alternative courses of action, advice to investors concerning the  performance of particular markets, advice to regulatory authorities concerning the impact of regulations upon the economy,  and advice to governments concerning the effects of alternative policy actions upon  economic efficiency, prices, output and economic stability.

The methodology of economic theory
Economic theory has  been developed  by formulating  hypothetical  models of reality, and then by examining how far they reflect what happens in the real world. In formualating the models, an approach known as instrumentalism has often been used,  which  adopts arbitrary axioms concerning  human behaviour on the grounds that they  lead to operationally useful results despite their departure from observed behaviour. However, economics has recently moved away from its early axiom-based deductive methodology towards a greater use of inductive logic and discontent with limitations of traditional theory has led to attempts to replace behavioural axioms by  observations and measurements, using the techniques of behavioural economics and neuroeconomics.

The categories of economic theory
The techniques of economics have been applied to many different activities, leading to the development of a wide range of sub-disciplines. However, the principal categories of economics that are of interest to the general reader are microeconomics, macroeconomics, welfare economics, financial economics, and international economics.


 * Microeconomics is about the use of the resources of land, capital and labour, their allocation to the production of particular goods and services, their relative prices,  and how they are distributed among consumers. It examines those issues by considering transactions between consumers and producers, acting singly or in groups. Many of its theorems were developed by deductive reasoning in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and most of them are now considered by economists to be uncontroversial.


 * Welfare economics is about the impact of decisions upon the economic well-being of those affected. It provides the theoretical basis for the practice of cost-benefit analysis. Its methodology is derived from that of microeconomics.


 * Macroeconomics is about such economy-wide quantities as national income, inflation and the unemployment rate. It examines the behaviour of  the economy as a unified system of interacting activities. It is a twentieth-century development that has had a major influence upon the political history of that century. Many of its theorems are considered to be controversial, and the subject is still under development.


 * Financial economics treats the financial system as an complex interactive system dealing both in claims upon future goods and services, and in the allocation of the risks that are associated with such claims. It is concerned with the investment choices made by individuals, with the financing choices made by corporations, with the conduct of financial institutions that act as financial intermediaries between individuals and corporations; and with the regulation of those institutions. Regulatory issues, in particular, are under review.


 * International economics is about such matters as tariffs, exchange rate regimes, international capital flows and the impact of trade policies upon developing countries. Its methodology was initially derived in the nineteenth century from the methodology of microeconomics, but it now has much in common with that of macroeconomics. Its principal theorems are widely accepted among professional economists but have been hotly contested by others.

The uses of economics
Economics makes its own contribution to the sum of scientific knowledge and it makes particular contributions to the understanding of the subjects of  history, geography, and  politics. Its findings are essential to the practice of business management,  financial management,  accounting and  commercial law. In fact the value of economics to the community arises from its practice rather than its theory. As the eminent economist, Ben Bernanke has put it "... although it has its own esoterica known only to initiates, it is at bottom a craft whose value lies primarily in its practical application".

Unlike most other sciences, economics is often the subject of  strongly-held opinions by laymen, and one of the functions of  economists is to counter damaging, popular fallacies.

Subject groups
There are articles in seven main subject groups:


 * Economic methodology; including the philosophy of economics, the history of economic thought, neuroeconomics, experimental economics, economic model and econometrics;


 * Economic theory; including financial economics, international economics, microeconomics, macroeconomics, welfare economics;


 * Economic theories; including Capital Asset Pricing Model, Diamond-Dybvig model, Keynesianism, IS-LM model, monetarism,


 * Economic concepts; including agency problem, arbitrage, asset price bubble, balance of payments, balance of trade, capital, competition, deflation, discount rate, discounted cash flow, efficiency, elasticity, employment, equilibrium, exchange rate, factors of production, Gross Domestic Product, Human Development Index, inflation, interest, labour, land, market, money supply, moral hazard, multiplier effect, national debt, net present value, opportunity cost, production function, price index,  public goods, recession, social capital, supply and demand, terms of trade, unemployment, utility


 * Economics-related policies, techniques and institutions; including antitrust, applied statistics, bank failures and rescues, banking, Bank for International Settlements, bond, central bank, competition policy, cost-benefit analysis, credit rating agency, EU competition policy, Euro, Federal Reserve System, Financial regulation, Financial Stability Forum, financial system, fiscal policy, gold standard, International Monetary Fund, monetary policy, National Recovery Administration, option, public expenditure, taxation, World Bank,


 * Economic events; including bank failures and rescues, crash of 1929, crash of 2008, G20 summit, Great Depression, Great Depression in the United States, Great Recession, New Deal, Paulson Plan, recession of 2009, sovereign default, subprime mortgage crisis,


 * Economists, including William Beveridge, Irving Fisher, Milton Friedman, Alvin Hansen, Friedrich Hayek, John Maynard Keynes, (Thomas) Robert Malthus, Alfred Marshall, Harry Markowitz, Elinor Ostrom, Vilfredo Pareto, David Ricardo, Paul Samuelson,  Adam Smith, Joseph E. Stiglitz, Thorstein Veblen,

Article format
Articles are in up to five parts.
 * The main article, which is intended to be accessible to readers with no training in economics and no familiarity with mathematics, and consequently contains no equations or charts, and in which technical terms are shown in italics, indicating that definitions are available on the related articles subpage.
 * The related articles subpage, which contains a link to the index of topics; lists of parent articles, subtopics and related topics; and a glossary of the terms shown in italics on the main page.
 * A tutorials subpage (for some articles) containing mathematical equations and charts and material suitable for reference by economists and students of economics.
 * A timelines subpage (for some articles) listing events in chronological order, the main purpose of which is to provide links to contemporary news reports.
 * An addendum subpage (for some articles) containing material that is more detailed than is considered appropriate to the main article.

Index
The economics index provides a link to every individual concept or topic that is referred to in the economics articles.

Timelines
A list of the timelines appearing as subpages to economics articles is on the timelines subpage of this article.

Glossaries
The economics glossary contains definitions of terms that are in general use by economists, and  more specialised terms are included in the finance glossary and the banking glossary.