User:Milton Beychok/Sandbox

A steam generator is a device that uses a heat source to boil liquid water and convert it into its vapor phase, referred to as steam. The heat may be derived from the combustion of a fuel such as coal, petroleum fuel oil, natural gas, municipal waste or biomass, a nuclear fission reactor and other sources.

There are a great many different types of steam generators ranging in size from small medical and domestic humidifiers to large steam generators used in conventional coal-fired power plants that generate about 3,500 kilograms of steam per megawatt-hour of energy production. The adjacent photo depicts an 1150 MW power plant with three steam generators which generate a total of about 4,025,000 kg/hour of steam.

Many small commercial and industrial steam generators are referred to as "boilers". In common usage, domestic water heaters are also referred to as "boilers". However, domestic water heaters do not boil water nor do they generate any steam.

Evolution of steam generator designs

 * Fire-tube boilers

In the late 18th century, various design configurations of fire-tube boilers began to be  widely used for steam generation in industrial plants, railway locomotives and steamboats. Fire-tube boilers are so named because the fuel combustion product gases (flue gas) flow through tubes surrounded by water contained in an outer cylindrical drum (see Figure 2). Today, steam-driven locomotives and river boats have virtually disappeared and fire-tube boilers are not used for steam generation in modern utility power plants.

However, they are still used in some industrial plants to generate saturated steam at pressures of up to about 18 bar and at rates ranging up to about 25,000 kg/hour. In that range, fire-tube boilers offer low capital cost, operational reliability, rapid response to load changes and no need for highly skilled labor.

The major shortcoming of fire-tube boilers is that the water and steam are contained within the outer cylindrical shell and that shell is subject to size and pressure limitations. The tensile stress (or hoop stress) on the cylindrical shell walls is a function of the shell diameter and the internal steam pressure:


 * $$\sigma = \frac{p\, d}{2\, t}$$

The ever-growing need for increased quantities of steam at higher and higher pressures could not be provided by fire-tube boilers because, as can be seen in the above equation, both higher pressures and larger diameter shells led to prohibitively thicker and more expensive shells.


 * Water-tube boilers

Water-tube boilers with logitudinal steam drums, as in Figure 3, were developed to allow increases in generated steam pressure and increased capacity. The water-tube boilers, in which water flowed through inclined tubes and the combustion product gases flowed outside the tubes, put the desired higher steam pressures in the small diameter tubes which could withstand the tensile stress of higher pressures without requiring excessively thick tubewalls.

The relatively smaller steam drums (in comparison with the fire-tube shells) were also capable of withstanding the tensile stress of the desired higher pressures without needing excessively thick drum walls.

The water-tube boiler went through several stages of design and development. The steam drum was arranged either parallel to the tubes (as shown in Figure 3) or transverse to the tubes, in which case the boiler was referred to as being a "cross drum" rather than a "longitudinal drum" boiler. Cross drum boilers could accomodate more tubes than longitudinal drum boilers and they were designed to generate steam pressures of up to about 100 bar and at rates ranging up to about 225,000 kg/hour.

The next stage of development involved using slightly bent tubes, three to four steam drums and one to two mud drums at the bottom of the tubes (see Figure 4). The three sets of bent tubes, as shown in Figure 4, each represent a bank of tubes extending from the front of the steam drums back to the rear of the drums. Thus, the longer the steam drums, the more tubes were available and the more heat transfer surface was available. The tubes were bent slightly so that they entered and exited the steam drums radially. Baffles made of firebrick forced the flue gas to travel upwards from the mud drum to the right-hand steam drum and then downwards from the middle steam drum to the mud drum and finally upwards to the left-hand steam drum and out the flue gas exit in the upper left-hand corner. in essence, as shown in Figure 4, the baffles created a multi-pathway for the flue gas.

The mud drums were suspended from the bottom of the tube banks and were free to move when the tube banks expanded as they heated up during boiler start-ups or contracted as they cooled down during boiler shutdowns. The purpose of the mud drum was to collect any solids that precipitated out from the water and the mud drums had provisions for blow-down of the collected solid.

Referring again to Figure 4, the fuel combustion zone was located in the lower right-hand section of the boiler and the design included provisions for an adequate combustion air supply as well as adequate flue gas stack draft.

Such designs were referred to as Stirling boilers, named after Alan Stirling who designed his first boiler in 1883 and patented it in 1892, four years after forming the Stirling Boiler Company of New York in 1888. One of the important advantages of the Stirling design was that the tubes were readily accessible, which made for easier inspection and maintenance or replacement of the tubes.

The Stirling boilers with four steam drums were superseded by a simpler two drum design with a steam drum directly above a water (mud) drum and bent water tubes connecting the two drums. Later designs of the two drum version had a single flue gas path. In general, the Stirling boiler was capable of handling rapidly varying loads and was also adaptable to using vaious fuels. It could be said that the Stirling boilers were the forerunners of the modern steam generators used in power plants.

The Babcock and Wilcox Company purchased and assimilated the Stirling Boiler Company in 1906 and began mass production of the Stirling boilers. Although widely used for large steam generating plants in the period between 1900 and World War II (the early 1940's), Stirling boilers are rarely seen today.

Power plants using fuel combustion heat
Plants generating electric power with steam generated from fuel combustion heat may burn coal, petroleum fuel oil, natural gas, municipal waste or biomass. Depending upon whether the pressure of the steam being generated is below or above the critical pressure of water (221 bar), a power plant steam generator may be either a subcritical (below 221 bar) or a supercritical (above 221 bar) steam generator. Figure 1 (see above) is a photo that shows the magnitude of a large modern power plant that generates subcritical steam from combustion of a fuel. The output superheated steam from subcritical steam generators, in power plants using fuel combustion, usually range in pressure from 130 to 190 bar, in temperature from 540 to 560 °C and at steam rates ranging from about 400,000 to about 5,000,000 kg/hour. The adjacent Figure 5 shows a typical modern power plant using fuel combustion to generate subcritical steam. The overall height of such steam generators ranges up to about 70 metres.

As shown, the unit has a steam drum and uses water-tubes embedded in the walls of the generator's furnace combustion zone. The saturated steam from the steam drum is superheated by flowing through tubes heated by the hot combustion gases. The hot combustion gases are also used to preheat the boiler feedwater entering the steam drum and the combustion air entering the combustion zone.

There are three configurations for such steam generators:


 * Natural circulation in which liquid water flows downward from the steam drum via the downcomer (see Figure 5) and a mixture of steam and water returns to the steam drum by flowing upward via the tubes embedded in the furnace wall. The difference in density between the downward flowing liquid water and the upward flowing mixture of steam and liquid provides sufficient driving force to induce the circulating flow.


 * Forced circulation in which a pump in the downcomer provides additional driving force for the circulating flow. The assistance of a pump is usually provided when generating steam at above about 170 bar because, at pressures above 170 bar, the density difference between the downcomer liquid and the liquid-steam mixture in the furnace wall tubes is reduced sufficiently to limit the circulating flow rate.


 * A once-through system in which no steam drum is provided and the boiler feedwater goes through the economiser, the furnace wall tubes and the superheater section in one continuous pass and there is no recirculation. In essence, the feedwater pump supplies the motive force for the flow through the system.

Figure 6 below schematically depicts the three configurations:

The critical point of a pure substance denotes the conditions above which distinct liquid and gas phases do not exist and there is no phase boundary between liquid and gas. As the critical point is approached, the properties of the gas and liquid phases approach one another, resulting in only one phase at the critical point: a homogeneous supercritical fluid. Thus, for supercritical steam generators, the once through system in Figure 6 is the configuration of choice, since there is no liquid or vapor above the critical point and there is no need for a steam drum to separate the non-existing liquid and gas phases. The term "boiler" should not be used for a supercritical pressure steam generator, as no "boiling" actually occurs in such systems.

A number of pioneering supercritical pressure once-through systems were built for the utility industry, many with pressures in the range of 310 to 340 bar and temperatures of 620 to 650 °C (well above the critical point of water). To reduce operational complexity and improve equipment reliability, subsequent supercritical systems were built at more moderate conditions of about 240 bar and 540 to 565 °C.